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Towards an inclusive

future

Impact and wider potential of information

and communication technologies

Edited by Patrick R.W. Roe

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology

of Lausanne

Laboratory of Electromagnetics

and Acoustics (LEMA-EPFL)

Accessibility for All

to Services and Terminals for

Next Generation Networks

Towards an inclusive future

Acknowledgements

Editing supported by the Office Fédéral de l’Education et de la Science

(OFES) Switzerland.

EUR: 22562 ISBN: 92-898-0027.

© COST 219ter, 2007.

Published by COST, Brussels.

COST is supported by the EU RTD Framework Programme.

Book design by Christopher Sharville www.laker-sharville.com

Printed by East Sussex Press. East Sussex Press is a CarbonNeutral® company and

registered to environmental standards ISO 14001.

The printing inks are made using vegetable-based oils.

No film or film processing chemicals were used. Ninety-five per cent of the cleaning solvents

are recycled for further use and 88 per cent of the waste associated with this product

will be recycled.

Towards an inclusive future

Foreword

Technological innovation has brought immense benefits to our society and economy.

Information and communication technologies (ICT) now play a key role in all our daily

lives, in our work, education, use of public services and in our homes. New possibilities

emerge of products and services that are flexible, quick, adaptable to our preferences,

reliable and robust.

Yet these same technological advances can present significant barriers to some of the very

people able to benefit most from these services and, without the right support, can even

add to the exclusion many people suffer. Key decisions made when designing and

developing technological products and services will dictate whether some groups, like

people with disabilities, will be able to use them or not.

About 15% of Europeans report difficulties performing daily life activities due to some

form of disability. With the demographic change towards an ageing population, this figure

will significantly increase in the coming years. Older people are often confronted with

multiple minor disabilities which can prevent them from enjoying the benefits that

technology offers. As a result, people with disabilities are one of the largest groups at risk

of exclusion within the Information Society in Europe.

It is estimated that only 10% of persons over 65 years of age use internet compared with

65% of people aged between 16-24. This restricts their possibilities of buying cheaper

products, booking trips on line or having access to relevant information, including social

and health services. Furthermore, accessibility barriers in products and devices prevents

older people and people with disabilities from fully enjoying digital TV, using mobile

phones and accessing remote services having a direct impact in the quality of their daily

lives.

Moreover, the employment rate of people with disabilities is 20% lower than the average

population. Accessible technologies can play a key role in improving this situation, making

the difference for individuals with disabilities between being unemployed and enjoying full

employment between being a tax payer or recipient of social benefits.

The recent United Nations convention on the rights of people with disabilities clearly states

that accessibility is a matter of human rights. In the 21st century, it will be increasingly

difficult to conceive of achieving rights of access to education, employment health care

and equal opportunities without ensuring accessible technology.

Technology penetrates ever more in our daily lives. It is crucial that we create solutions

that are usable and accessible for everyone, regardless of their abilities. This is not just

about meeting the needs of a small part of the population. In fact, evidence suggests that

facilitating access to the information society for people with disabilities benefits many

more people in the general population, for example as it drives innovation towards easier

to use products and websites.

Last year, all Member States agreed on a declaration in Riga committing themselves to

take concrete steps to build an Inclusive Information Society and setting clear targets for

i

Towards an inclusive future

the coming years. To achieve these objectives, it is important to make everyone aware that

eAccessibility is a positive factor for the competitiveness of our industries. Technology is

pointless unless it ultimately meets the needs of society. This must be fully reflected in the

European policies for building the Information Society. eAccessibility is thus essential to

achieving an inclusive society and key for the success of the i2010 initiative, A European

Information Society for Growth and Employment.

European funding on research and development for accessible technologies and services

is not the only precondition to building an information society for all. To ensure that

everyone has the opportunity to benefit from these impressive technological advances, it

is also essential to create a legal and economic environment in which these European

socio-economic objectives can be achieved. The various factors that can contribute to the

risk of exclusion are indeed often interrelated, like poverty, low level of education,

unemployment, disability and old age. These need to be addressed in a consistent and

coherent policy framework.

A truly inclusive Information Society must be socially and economically sustainable. For

many years, accessibility efforts have been concentrated on removing existing barriers. But

this is not enough. COST 219 activities have been pioneers in preventing eAccessibility

problems by promoting a Design for All approach for telecommunication products and

services.

This book addresses the accessibility of next generation ICT networks and services running

on them. Some of the specific issues in this context are: how to ensure accessibility to new

IP based communication solutions? What features do we need to build in next generation

networks to ensure real time multimodal conversations? How to ensure the accessibility

of emergency numbers? Next generation networks offer immense opportunities for

having, besides voice, good quality real time video communication using sign language

and text, including for example display in real time virtual Braille. This would open up new

communication opportunities in particular for deaf-blind persons.

The time is ripe for addressing these issues, asking questions such as the ones above. This

book will certainly contribute to the debate and stimulate the implementation of

accessible solutions in next generation networks. I welcome this important contribution to

the telecommunications field and to the construction of an Inclusive Information Society

in Europe.

Viviane Reding

Member of the European Commission

for Information Society and Media

ii

Towards an inclusive future

Contents

1.

Introduction

1

2.4

Evolution of text telephony

2.

Current examples of

2.4.1 The recommendations of the

90

existing products and

Nordic countries regarding

services for people with

functionality for text telephony

disabilities

2.4.2 Mobile and IP-based text

93

2.1 Introduction

5

telephony

Flexible text communication

2.2 New technologies to help

services in Sweden

people with disabilities and

elderly people

2.4.3 Mobile text telephony based on

97

GPRS communications

2.2.1 Safe navigation with wireless

9

technology

2.5

User participation in

technology

2.2.2 Speech processing

24

2.5.1 Example of procurement

105

2.3 New remote services

specifications: functional

specification for terminal

2.3.1 Novel broadband-based

43

procurement in Sweden

services: new opportunities for

people with disabilities

3.

Smart home environment

Broadband trials by the

3.1 Introduction

110

National Post and Telecom

Agency (Post- och telestyrelsen

3.2 Smart home framework

111

PTS), in Sweden

3.3 Smart home technology

116

2.3.2 Access to video relay services

60

through the Pocket Interpreter

3.4 Products and services

125

(3G) and Internet (IP)

3.5 User interaction

130

2.3.3 Convenient invocation of relay

65

services

3.6 Realized projects

134

2.3.4 Ways of using mobile

75

3.7 Challenges

147

telephones by people with

dementia

4.

Ambient Intelligence and

implications for people

2.3.5 Implementation of an SMS-

81

with disabilities

based emergency service in

Finland

4.1 Introduction

157

iii

Towards an inclusive future

Contents

4.2

The ISTAG scenarios: a case

158

7.4 Discussion of the results

294

study

7.5 References

298

4.3

Ethical and legislative issues

188

with regard to Ambient

8

From concept to reality

Intelligence

8.1 New technologies

300

5

The regulatory scene

8.2 The development process

303

5.1 Regulation at the crossroads

206

8.3 Legislation and regulation as

309

5.2 eAccessibility: European

234

drivers

developments and targets

8.4 Conclusions

310

6

The role of evaluation of

accessibility

Appendices

6.1 Introduction

247

I

Scenarios for people who are

312

not able to see

6.2 Evaluation trends

249

II

Glossary of acronyms used in

324

6.3 Mobile phone evaluation toolkit

255

book

6.4 Case Study: an example of how

262

III

List of authors and members of

326

evaluation may change the

COST 219ter

design: ATM project in Portugal

IV

Further information

329

6.5 Recommendations

273

6.6 Opportunities and challenges

276

6.7

References

279

7

What obstacles prevent

practical broadband

applications being

produced and exploited?

7.1 Executive summary

281

7.2 Introduction to interactive

281

management format

7.3 Results

285

iv

1.

Towards an inclusive future

1. Introduction

Patrick Roe

There is no question that over the last twenty years, since the inception of the

original COST 219 Action, a considerable shift in attitude and awareness has

occurred towards including people with disabilities and older people in all aspects

of society.

From a situation of ignorance and overall lack of awareness, there is now a general

acceptance at a political, societal and even to a certain extent at an industrial level

that it is no longer acceptable to develop products and services that will exclude a

substantial proportion of the population, including people with disabilities and

older people.

This is not to say that all issues have been resolved, far from it. For example, one

of the aspects that still needs to be conveyed to all stakeholders is that embracing

the Design for All principle is not a one off effort but an ongoing and permanent

commitment over the longer term. However at least there is now a state of

recognition that these issues have to be addressed and a realisation that if these

complex issues are suitably handled with appropriate strategies and policies, there

are exciting potential rewards to be gained. Indeed, with the well-publicised

ageing of the population the issue of technology at the service of older people is

seen as an opportunity and an integral part of future strategies in tackling the

problem of how to keep people in their homes for as long as possible (chapter 3).

A crucial and recurring theme throughout the book is that it is vital to design

products and services right from the beginning that can be used by the broadest

possible section of the population (Design for All approach discussed in chapters

3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, for example).

The purpose of this book is to give the reader an overall picture of the current

situation with the latest trends in products and services that can be used by as

many people as possible including people with disabilities and older people

(chapter 2). One example from section 2.3.2 will show how remote sign language

interpretation using 3G telephony had a high take up when priced affordably.

Other examples presented in chapter 2 include showing how new technologies can

help with safe navigation (section 2.2.1) and how the potential of broadband can

be fulfilled in providing useful new services (section 2.3.1). Some of the latest

issues concerning relay services and text telephony are discussed in sections 2.3.3

and 2.4

1

1.

Towards an inclusive future

There is also a presentation of the latest possibilities of using speech processing

(section 2.2.2). This technology has been promising much for many years, and the

reader will be able to assess the degree of maturity it has now reached whilst

being able to appreciate the potential for using it in applications for people with

disabilities.

Another very important emerging technology/area is that of Ambient Intelligence

(AmI). The potential implications for all citizens are immense. In chapter 4, the

reader will get an insight into the exciting new possibilities that AmI could offer

people with disabilities and older people. The approach used has been to take the

ISTAG (IST Advisory Group) scenarios (with some adaptations) and to analyse what

would happen if people with disabilities were introduced into the scenarios. In this

way, it has been possible to carry out a detailed analysis of some of the

implications and possibilities of AmI for people with disabilities. This should help all

potential users answer the question, “The Future is here, can I live with it?” Ethical

issues related to A m I , which are of course of particular relevance to all

disadvantaged groups, are discussed in section 4.3.

An important component in this gathering groundswell of awareness is the

willingness of governments, both at national and EU level, to introduce new laws

and/or regulation, backed up by standardisation, so as to ensure equal rights of all

citizens in relation to access and use of technology.

A comprehensive review of the current situation is given in chapter 5, where the

reader will be able to gather a clear idea of the available choices within the review

of Framework Directives and the potential impact these decisions will have on

people with disabilities. The EU is clearly at an important regulatory crossroads

with the next few years being crucial in determining which is to be the future

direction of regulation. This chapter indicates how the interest of disadvantaged

users can be protected within this Framework Directives review without hampering

innovation and investment.

An additional key issue raised in chapter 5 is that of certification, be it self-

d e c l a ration certification, certification/accreditation of suppliers or third-party

certification schemes. The various options and their implications are discussed

leading on quite naturally to chapter 6 where an overview can be found of current

trends in accessibility evaluation and what types of evaluation and usability

assessment are currently being carried out by test houses. The reader will be able

to gather information about a mobile phone evaluation toolkit developed within

the framework of COST 219ter (section 6.3) which is a simple methodology for

2

1.

Towards an inclusive future

assessing the accessibility of a mobile phone. The best time to use this toolkit

would be while testing/checking other protocols and design issues. A case study

from Portugal of how evaluation may change the design is also given in section

6.4.

Despite the growing awareness and increasing technological possibilities, offered

for example by broadband, there is still widespread frustration that more truly

accessible and usable products are not appearing on the market. To try and

understand the reasons for this lack of products and services COST 219ter resolved

to employ the Interactive Management (IM) methodology with the triggering

question “Considering the availability of powerful broadband technologies and the

development of relevant scenarios, what are the obstacles that prevent us from

producing more practical applications?”. The intriguing results and ensuing

roadmap from of these two (IM) workshops are described in detail in chapter 7.

Without revealing too much, it is possible to say that the process yielded some

unexpected results. For example, the roadmap on page 293 shows that some very

fundamental issues, such the difficulty in turning a statement of user needs into

design requirements, still needs to be resolved in order for there to be more

practical applications and products on the market.

This roadmap also highlights some of the challenges that still lie ahead on the road

to inclusion. The momentum is surging ahead pushing all components of our

society including, users, disability organisations, regulatory authorities, legislators,

standardisation bodies, civil servants, governments and industry towards having to

grapple with new issues and break new ground. There is no turning back now and

by the end of this book, the reader should have a better appreciation of the point

we have reached on this road towards a truly inclusive future.

Note from the Editor

Although the Members of COST 219ter are well aware of the WHO “International

Classification of Disability, Functioning and Health (ICF)”, the terminology used

through out the book is not wholly consistent. This is partly for reasons of style but

also partly reflects the various opinions and preferences of the authors, amongst

whom no consensus was reached (and probably never will be) on what were the

most acceptable terms to be used. The Editor decided to respect this variety of

usage and hopes that no offence is taken by anyone.

3

1.

Towards an inclusive future

Acknowledgements

I would personally like to like to thank all the authors for their most valuable

contributions written in most cases in busy circumstances under heavy workloads.

This effort is much appreciated. I would particularly like to thank the lead authors

of each chapter, without whom this book would never have been finished on time

and a special thanks to John Gill for his advice and support throughout the whole

process.

Patrick R.W. Roe

Editor

4

2. Current examples of existing products and services for

people with disabilities

2. Current examples of existing products and services for

people with disabilities

2.1 Introduction

Julio Abascal and Patrick Roe

This chapter brings together a number of examples of good practice that have been

chosen with the objective of providing some insight on the possible evolution from

current telecommunication technologies to future “intelligent environment”

services. The main aim is to give a snapshot of current trends in services that are

accessible to people with disabilities and to discuss the possible impact on people

with physical, sensory or cognitive restrictions (that may be due to a disability,

ageing or to the special conditions or equipment they use). The emphasis is on

presenting current services and how they are likely to evolve in the future to show

what the potential impact could be on people with disabilities and elderly users.

This will also serve as a baseline of what is the current situation in comparison to

the possible future scenarios discussed in chapter 4.

The chapter is structured into four main sections (apart from this introduction): 2.2.

New technologies to help people with disabilities and elderly people; 2.3. New

remote services; 2.4. Evolution of text telephony; and 2.5. User participation in

technology. A summary of the contents is given below.

Section 2.2 New technologies to help people with

disabilities and elderly people

Technological advancement in the field of robotics has provided devices and

techniques for sensoring, positioning, mapping, navigating, etc. These techniques

have made it possible to develop devices to help people with physical, sensorial or

cognitive restrictions to navigate both outdoors and indoors. The section "Safe

navigation with modern technology" makes a detailed description of current

technology to support human navigation and discusses the possibilities for the

near future.

It is known that speech is the main means of communication between people.

Nevertheless a number of users with disabilities experience restrictions in their

speech capacity that limit their communication skills. Current speech technology is

able to translate text-to-voice and voice-to-text (the latter still without enough

quality and reliability), enabling the design of diverse mediation devices and

5

2. Current examples of existing products and services for

people with disabilities

services. These include, for instance, reading texts aloud for people with sight

restrictions, and controlling devices in a more natural way through the voice. The

section entitled "Speech processing for people with disabilities" reviews current

and more particularly, future applications of speech technologies that can enhance

the communication of elderly people and people with disabilities.

Section 2.3 New remote services

Broadband communication technologies are already available. They can sustain

advanced services to support people with disabilities and elderly people. Relay

services, virtual communities, enhanced communication, etc., are being successfully

tested in a number of countries. The section entitled "Novel broadband-based

services: new opportunities for people with disabilities" describes seven trials of

advanced broadband-based support services, conducted by the National Post and

Telecom Agency in Sweden (Post- och telestyrelsen, PTS), to test the validity of

current and future broadband telecommunications services in providing remote

support that is tuned to the needs of specific groups of people with disabilities.

Relay services usually act as communication mediators between users, one of

whom at least has a disability that prevents them from using standard

communication devices or services. These services are able to translate from signs-

to-voice (and vice versa), from text-to-voice (and vice versa), etc. They can also

provide other services such as the description of a received image to a blind

person. Some pre-existent relay services may be enhanced, universalised and made

less expensive by means of the currently available advanced telecommunication

technologies. The section entitled "Access to video relay services through the

pocket Interpreter (3G) and Internet (IP)" presents two experiences developed by

the Swedish National Post and Telecom Agency: The IP access project, a video

telephony relay service based on IP and the pocket interpreter for mobile video

communication, both for signing deaf people.

Efficient use of relay services requires that a number of steps be closely followed

in order to speed up the service. The section entitled "Convenient invocation of

relay services" describes the best way to invoke various relay services currently

existing in Sweden. These experiences may be taken as examples of good practice

that help optimise the design of the access to future relay services.

The rise of Short Message Services (SMS) tied to the expansion of mobile

telephony, is frequently associated in our minds to young people. Short messages

are cheaper than voice calls and don’t require that both interlocutors are

simultaneously engaged. Nevertheless, SMS can be also useful for other groups of

the population. A remarkable application of SMS is shown in section "Ways of

6

2. Current examples of existing products and services for

people with disabilities

using mobile telephones by people with dementia", revealing that elderly people

with cognitive restrictions can take advantage of this technology for verbal, text or

symbol communication and support.

SMS technology is also used in the "Implementation of an SMS-based emergency

service in Finland" to allow not only deaf people, but any other user, to contact the

universal 112 emergency service sending emergency text messages. After making

contact the user receives an acknowledgement message and can be located for

assistance.

Section 2.4 Evolution of text telephony

Text telephony is currently the basic means of communication for many people

with disabilities, such as deaf people. The technology supporting mobile telephony

does not allow the extension of traditional text telephony. For this reason, many

users substitute mobile text telephony by the use of SMS messages, but they do

not allow full interactive communication, hence the need to develop novel mobile

text telephony services.

Since the next generation of text telephony in Europe is under development, it is

necessary to establish basic design guidelines that guarantee the quality of the

service. "The recommendations of the Nordic countries regarding functionality for

text telephony" section compiles criteria that include mobility, interoperability,

continuity, accessibility from the internet, and availability of relay services.

Diverse experiences have been developed to provide mobile text telephony

through the access to internet servers. The section entitled "Mobile & IP-based text

telephony" shows the deployment of such a service in Sweden, while "Mobile text

telephony based on GPRS communications" explains the results obtained by a

Spanish project.

Section 2.5 User participation in technology

With the attraction of a growing market, there is a greater likelihood that more and

more companies will be marketing devices in the near future that can be accessed

by elderly people and/or people with disabilities. Since these concepts can be

interpreted in diverse ways, consumers may find that devices advertised as fully

accessible, straightforward and easy to use, do not really fulfil their needs. It is

within this context that the availability of functional specifications of terminals

becomes essential, so that products can be checked and certified in order to give

to the customer a guarantee of the appropriateness of a given product or service

7

2. Current examples of existing products and services for

people with disabilities

in relation to his or her needs. The section entitled "Functional specification for

terminal procurement" presents an example of good practice from Sweden in what

will become an important area for the future.

8

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

2.2 New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

2.2.1 Safe navigation with wireless technology

Jan-Ingvar Lindström

Background

How can I be sure to find my way? Can I walk safely here? What happens if I get

lost? Do I dare to try a new route? What if I suddenly fall ill and need help? The

lack of good answers to these and similar questions have prevented a number of

vulnerable people to move around in outdoor as well as indoor environments

which they are not familiar with.

And who is not vulnerable? Basically, all of us sometimes are in need for help

because we have lost our way or feel unsafe or have made a mistake in our way-

finding effort. Among us, however, are people who feel more at risk than others,

not least people with various kinds of disabilities. And among these, people with

visual disabilities and those who suffer from cognitive impairments have expressed

strong interest in finding solutions to overcome their problems.

Historically, blindness and partial sight have inspired engineers and psychologists

to find solutions to way-finding problems for these groups, both in terms of

personal navigation aids and landmarks in the environment. Early on, the long

cane became a well known attribute to blind pedestrian’s navigation, and later

efforts have been made to improve the cane by adding remote sensors. Examples

are laser emitting diodes end sensors, magnetic field probes and – most recently –

RFID1 detecting devices. Other ideas have been to simulate bat’s navigation

technique, i.e. the development of various kinds of ultra sonic devices to scan the

environment and get some idea of what it looks like.

The common denominator for all these examples has been the individual

characteristics of the solutions. Also, they only provide information about the very

near environment.

Given these historical facts, over the last few decades, navigation problems of

other groups have been acknowledged. An example is the large group of people

with cognitive impairments, including e.g. those with dyslexia, mental disabilities,

dementia and stroke, but also people with mobility problems, including wheel chair

1 Radio Frequency Identification

9

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

users. The problems here are wide ranging from being able to read and understand

a map or remember information to learning in advance about obstacles, on-going

road works and similar matters. Even people who are deaf or hard-of-hearing have

experienced great problems in moving from their home to e.g. a school or working

site by public transport as so much information is given about changes in time

tables and alternative means of transport, etc., has been given orally. Slow

improvements have come about in society as much information has successively

been given both as voice information and presented on visual displays. These

solutions, however, have been generic, and not been of much help to people who

suffer from dementia, mental disabilities and other cognitive disorders.

A break through came about with the installation of the American Global

Positioning System – GPS, that has been used since the late 1980s for positioning

purpose, mainly as a tool for finding the way for car drivers and boat and aircraft

navigation. As it will be discussed later, the GPS system per se does of course not

solve the problems displayed above, but it forms a basis for further development

that can lead to powerful tools for all groups with significant navigation problems.

Positioning, orientation, navigation, communication

and localization

Mobility outdoors

Knowing one’s position is important, but not enough for safe moving around in an

unknown environment. A system should also make it possible for users to orientate

themselves, i.e. to know in which direction they are standing in relation to, for

example, the points of the compass, to navigate independently, i.e. be able to move

from one given position to another, and also if necessary, raise an alarm or

communicate with an information or alarm centre for personal support and

assistance. It should also be possible, for those who so wish, to be found without

having to consciously trigger a localization function themselves.

Positioning

Satellite systems

The most widely used and available system – the GPS system – is based on the

use of radio signals transmitted from satellites orbiting the Earth and with whose

assistance it is possible, with the use of special receivers, to get a position on the

10

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

Earth's surface in the form of coordinates. This kind of reference can be

transformed into, for example, an indication on an electronic map on a GPS

receiver. This can be linked to a mobile telephone, handheld computer or the like.

At present there are two existing systems in use: the American GPS (Global

Positioning System) and the Russian GLONASS (Global Navigation System). The

latter does not have any marketing in Europe and is currently being extensively

updated. For many years, a system has been planned in Europe known by the

working name Galileo. This system is designed to be well-adapted for European

environments in particular. However, it is still presently at the development phase

and will not be fully accessible until 2008 at the earliest.

GPS is designed to provide the best possible coverage some hundred miles north

and south of the equator. This means that the further north and south one goes,

the worse coverage one gets with GPS owing to the satellites all appearing to lie

rather close to the horizon.

In it simplest form, GPS provides a positioning accuracy of some tens of meters.

However, there is an extensive system of terrestrial stations that can take care of

and process signals before they are received in the individual GPS receiver. This is

known as Differential GPS or DGPS. With such support, it is possible to get down

to an accuracy of just a few meters. In principle, it is possible to achieve even

greater accuracy in this way (to within centimetres) but, for various reasons, it is

not practically feasible for the navigation application in question. One reason is

that access is not available everywhere to the terrestrial stations required for

processing the signal. Another reason is that it may take up an unacceptably long

time to process the signal – sometimes several seconds, which is too long in a real

orientation situation.

Another possibility is Assisted GPS – AGPS – which can be used in situations where

the signals from the satellites are too weak. This may be appropriate indoors, but

also outdoors under less favourable circumstances. Examples of such

circumstances are when only a small number of satellites can be reached or when

moving around on narrow streets surrounded by high buildings or other similar

environments – the so called canyon-effect.

It should be pointed out in this context that GPS receivers with much greater

sensitivity than before – iGPS – are now starting to come onto the market, which

may allow navigation with sufficiently good precision even in environments that

are currently problematic from a radio perspective2.

2 www.gpsworld.com and www.esa.int/esa websites can be consulted for more information about GPS, DGPS and AGPS.

11

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

Mobile telephone cells

A less precise, but not uninteresting method is what’s called 'Cell Global Identity',

CGI. This is based on the possibility to register and identify the communication

between a telephone and its activated base stations. There is consequently a

technical possibility to determine the approximate position of a particular mobile

telephone at any given moment. However, the technology is far too imprecise and

is not yet adequately established to be of interest in the present context.

The utilization of GPS and CGI results in some form of coordinate references. These

are only meaningful if they can be related to reality in the form of an appropriate

map reference. Accordingly, access to maps and an appropriate user interface is

necessary. This must be available in several alternative designs in order to adapt to

the user's special capacities, for example people with visual impairments, people

with reading and writing difficulties, people with cognitive problems and people

with intellectual disabilities.

Landmarks

A landmark means here some kind of identifiable point in the surroundings that

one can relate to in order to determine ones position. Such points are virtually

everywhere for people who have sight and full control of their surroundings – it

may be a familiar sign, a church tower or a distinctive large tree.

For people with visual impairments, different kinds of acoustic landmarks (sound

beacons) have been tested for position determination. Examples are the ticking

devices at pedestrian crossings that both confirm a position and to some extent

guide the user to the post. Among the more exotic ones are recorded bird’s songs

used in Japan!

Today, there are various technical possibilities to provide this kind of guidance:

• One is based on Bluetooth technology. This means that small radio

transmitters are positioned at strategic points in the environment. When one

approaches such a transmitter carrying an appropriate receiver, pre-recorded

information will be read out, which could include anything from advertising

to the identification of, for example, a bus stop. Bluetooth transmitters need

an energy supply in the form of, for example, an integral battery

• Another technology is based on what is called RFID – Radio Frequency

Identification. This is based on a passive or active radio circuit that transmits

information when approached by a special combination of transmitter and

receiver. As the fixed transmitter normally is passive, it does not need to

have its own energy supply

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

• A third possibility is WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network – which are local,

radio-based networks that send information to, for example, a mobile

telephone or PDA about what is located in the vicinity.

All these systems have pros and cons for the user.

• The WLAN concept provides a rather inaccurate position determination if

not calibrated at the spot where it is intended to offer positioning

capabilities. It is most appropriate for information about, for example, what

a shopping centre offers in the form of shops and connections for adjacent

public transport. It is consequently more of an information system than a

positioning system

• Bluetooth technology is significantly more precise from a positioning

perspective, but it still allows quite a number of meters of deviation without

'losing' the receiver. To bear in mind is that Bluetooth technology does not

support information concerning direction or relative distance between the

user and the Bluetooth unit, but merely if a user is within range

• The RFID circuit is the most accurate, often functioning at very short

distances – in the region of a few decimetres.

WLAN and Bluetooth technology are already commercially available and have

been implemented in various contexts, while the most common usage of RFID

applications is in logistics. All have the advantage of functioning both indoors and

outdoors. The disadvantage is that they require varying degrees of attention and

maintenance.

Where there is a risk of radio black spot, the possibility of using landmarks like

RFID, Bluetooth and WLAN for secure navigation indoors and outdoors should be

considered.

Orientation

Some kind of compass is required for orientation. A traditional type of magnetic

compass, i.e. a needle compass, can of course be used, but this is not particularly

practical, especially for people with visual impairments. In this context, it would

probably be more practical to have a magnetic field sensor and presentation in a

visual or acoustic form. However, all magnetic compasses are affected by fields of

magnetic disturbance – a strong deviation may be directly misleading and thereby

be dangerous for the user. A more secure way is to make use of 'inertial navigation'

in some form, but accessible systems are voluminous, expensive and require a lot

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

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of power. A further possibility is to utilize the compass function offered by the GPS

system. The principle for this is that the system registers two consecutive points

and calculates the angle between the points on the basis of these measurements,

which in general is the same as the angle of travel. However the disadvantage is

that this only functions when one is moving. It is consequently not possible to start

from a given point and at that point determine which direction one is facing.

At present, the GPS system offers the best opportunities available for direction

orientation while moving and an integral digital compass function in a handheld

unit when stationary.

Navigation

The GPS system constitutes the basis for navigation, i.e. support to move from

point A to point B. The simplest form of navigation means that one receives almost

continuous backup support – visually or acoustically – in the form of appropriate

road descriptions. However, this can also mean information about what is available

on the route during the journey, in the form of ancillary information, for example

the shops that are available in the vicinity and the range of products that they offer.

These facilities will probably use local transmitters based on, for example,

Bluetooth technology, RFID or WLAN.

How the system is used can vary according to need. In general one knows where

one is and wants to go, but needs feed back during the route. It should also be

possible to tell the system where one wants to go and let the system find the best

route. An extreme case is when one has got lost and just wants to get back to the

starting point – the 'back to base function'.

Maps

Maps are of great importance for navigation for most people. This applies not least

for people with different disabilities. For people using wheelchairs, for example, it

is important to have an overview of the route to be taken and, if possible, to assess

any slopes, the nature of the route, etc. For people with visual impairments, this is

perhaps even more important. Here, it is necessary to assimilate a mental map of

the route to take. This can basically be done in two ways:

• For those with partial sight, maps with good contrast, preferably with

different scales for overall and detailed information respectively are

necessary. This is relatively simple to do now that maps are digitally stored. It

is also possible to show them in colour and at the desired size on a

computer screen and get a print out on a colour printer

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

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• For people who are blind, the visual information must be translated into

tactile information in the form of raised-line maps. There is no special simple

technique to achieve this. It requires preparation in good time and access to

special technical equipment.

There are digitally-stored maps for satellite-based systems that can be entered into

the navigator. One of the many advantages of these is that they can be kept up-

to-date and, in certain systems, are almost continuously fed into the navigator.

Both digital and analogue maps are required. It should be possible to download

digital maps onto the user's handheld unit and onto a computer at a service centre.

Analogue maps in visual and tactile form – raised-line maps – are provided

primarily when planning a travel route.

Most digital land-maps of today are intended for car drivers. They are of very

limited use for pedestrians, especially those who are visually impaired. Therefore,

maps must be developed that show safe ways for pedestrians, i.e. sidewalks,

pathways, stairs etc.

Another method for people with visual impairments is a verbal description where

the route is explained in sequence of the type: "Go along Main Street towards

Main Square. Go past two street crossings. Take a right at the third. Walk for

approximately 100 meters. You are then close to a pedestrian crossing with a

ticking acoustic signal. Cross at this pedestrian crossing." This kind of information

can, for example, be recorded on a pocket memory and be retrieved subsequently

as the user is moving along, which however requires that someone assumes the

role of recording the information. One disadvantage is that there is no help if

something goes wrong on the way – there is nothing to put the user back 'on

track'. Nor is there, of course, anything that gives a warning of impediments in the

form of road works and the like.

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

Figure 2.1 Digital map showing the importance of including sidewalks and stairs for

pedestrian safety.

Communication

For communication – everything from a call to an alarm – it is necessary to have

a manned centre with which users can communicate. In its simplest form, this

comprises a person who can answer the telephone and by talking to the user can

assist with orientation. In a more advanced system, a 3G telephone can be used,

where users can send pictures or video clips from their surroundings to a support

person, who can then assist them more easily. In its more advanced form, the

support person has access to an electronic map on a screen, where the user’s

position is automatically entered as a point of reference.

Localization

The function ‘localization’ aims at being found if lost and not able to call for help.

In principle, there are two ways of achieving this.

One is to use a combination of GPS and mobile communication in such a way that

the user’s own mobile telephone automatically transmits information to a service

or an alarm centre, where the position is shown on a map on a screen terminal.

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

Figure 2.2 Position determination on a digital screen map,

for example at a service centre.

The other way is radio direction finding, which means that a transmitter position is

located with the help of one or more antennae for radio direction finding. In this

case, the user has to wear a special transmitter designed much like a wrist watch.

These transmitters can be activated via Minicall3, after which the transmitted radio

signals can be picked up by a special radio direction finding receiver.

Users have stressed the importance of it being possible to locate them when they

have lost the capacity to orientate themselves during a journey. Methods for

position determination on a map on a computer screen through, for example, a

service centre have been developed and implemented by, among others, the

Swedish police.

Indoor navigation issues

One condition for the use of a GPS receiver is that it can be reached by signals from

at least three satellites. Basically, a clear line of sight to the satellites is required

from the receiver as the signal strength is very weak. This means that reception

indoors cannot be deemed reliable. AGPS can to some extent be used for indoor

orientation. More reliable, however, is an inertial navigation system – gyrocompass

and accelerometer in combination with a system for 'dead reckoning' – to keep

track of where someone is located. However, the situation may rapidly change.

Technology is developing towards increasingly sensitive receivers and, a s

mentioned earlier, the European Galileo system will allow reception where the

current GPS system is too weak. However, it is wise for the moment to rely in

practice on other methods for indoor navigation.

The most obvious is to rely on transmissions of radio signals from locally placed

transmitters, for example, in shopping centres and arcades. – The disadvantage of

3 Minicall is an RF-based technology, used for distribution, e.g. of text messages on 169,800 MHz

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

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this method is that it requires the placement of transmitters at many sites. This

requires a great deal of organization, s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n , m a i n t e n a n c e, e t c . ,

something which has not been established completely today.

Many of the technologies and assistive devices that have been described in the

Landmarks section are of course also applicable for indoor environments. This

applies not least to maps, which can be essential to enable users to find their way

around shopping centres and arcades.

The user’s device

User devices utilizing the GPS system have been on the market for several years,

and today stationary as well as hand held navigators are available for private use

in boats and cars. Most of them are dedicated for the purpose, integrated in a

device with a screen in full colour. There are also some separate units to be

connected to PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) or Mobile telephones.

Figure 2.3 An example of a hand held GPS navigator.

There are ergonomic advantages with the integrated solutions. The drawback is

that it might be difficult to find an optimal position for the GPS receiver at the

same time as the device should be manipulated or the screen read. An interesting

compromise has been developed in the Canadian Trekker, where the GPS receiver

is mounted on a belt to be hung on the shoulder and the processing device – in

this case a PDA – is positioned at hand level. The output device – in this case a

loudspeaker – is also mounted on the belt close to the ear of the user.

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

Figure 2.4 Victor Trekker, designed and manufactured by Canada-based company

VisuAid, was launched in March 2003.

The Trekker solution allows for independent navigation but does not supply any

service or alarm function. For this a separate mobile phone has to be used.

Swedish activities

In Sweden, a study aiming at initiating a few trials was made in 2005. In the study,

possible technologies were investigated and planned and on-going activities as

well as available technical equipment identified. Also, representatives from

Swedish handicap organizations were interviewed and given the possibility to put

forward demands and desires on equipment and system.

Among other things it became clear that the functionality, reliability and easy-to-

handle matters were priority tasks. Also, all interviewed persons wanted a kind of

“life-line”, i.e. the possibility to get help if the track was lost, some unexpected

obstacles appeared or an emergency situation came about. Therefore, there was a

demand for a kind of service centre which could be reached via a mobile

telephone, preferably with video transmission facilities.

The persons interviewed also pointed out that they did not want another technical

gadget to take care of, but preferably a mobile telephone with built in facilities for

GPS-navigation and access to RFID- and Bluetooth based information4.

4 A report, “Navigation, alarming and positioning – A preliminary study conducted in Sweden by the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Department of Speech, Music and Hearing in the assignment of the National Post and Telecom Agency (PTS) 2005” is available at http://www.pts.se/Dokument/dokument.asp?Sectionid=&Itemid=5678&Languageid=EN

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

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Swedish trials

The study revealed three on-going and planned pre-studies. These are localized in

the three biggest cities of Sweden – Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmoe.

In Stockholm, the focus is upon people with visual disabilities. A digital pedestrian

map has been developed for an area in the city by name Sodermalm. The intention

is to start a study towards the end of 2006 with a small group of people with visual

impairments. The technology that will be used in the first phase of the study

includes server based map and obstacle data, route planning functionality, a

mobile phone and positioning technologies. Later on additional functionality such

as individualization of required information, alarm functions and points of interest

is intended to be added.

In Gothenburg the primary target group is people with cognitive impairments. Even

here the study is intended to start late 2006, and embrace a small group of people

to start with. The project will be linked to intentions by the local public transport

authorities to facilitate the use of public transport by elderly and people with

disabilities.

The study in Malmoe will aim at people with visual impairments as well as those

with physical disabilities.

A service centre that can handle alarms and be contacted via the user’s mobile

telephone facility will also be included.

A schematic overview of the functions is shown in figure 2.5.

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

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Figure 2.5 A schematic overview of the planned navigation systems in Sweden.

The user – the focal point of the system – is assumed to have impaired vision,

hearing, motor or cognitive functions. Software for implementing speech synthesis,

speech control and Braille presentation (on a separate display) and the possibility

of an individual design and adaptation of the visual presentation on the screen (for

example, zooming in and pictograms) are required.

It is assumed that the user has a mobile telephone or handheld computer with

mobile communications facilities with the above-mentioned adaptations. There are

many different mobile telephones available on the market, appropriate for this

purpose, for example Nokia Serial 60 phones, e.g.6630, N70 etc. but also Sony

Ericsson UIQ phones or stronger Java phones.

A handheld computer (PDA) is interesting from many perspectives, but must be

supplied with a telephony attachment. Only a few have integral telephone

functionality. Regardless of what one chooses, a terminal with a digital compass,

camera and Bluetooth function is recommended.

The telephones must have open operating systems. Symbian and Windows Mobile

can both be used. The latter is more powerful and quicker, but requires more

power. Symbian is considered to be preferable, not least because there are many

telephone models to choose from with this system.

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

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The telephone is linked to a GPS receiver. This can either be integral or separate.

The latter is preferable, first because reception is generally better if the GPS receiver

can be placed independently of the handheld communication unit and second for

power supply reasons (the batteries last longer).

There is a large variety of software to choose from for navigation, for example

various Garmin products, GPS Pilot Tracker, Mapmate, Navicore, Route 66,

TomTom, Trekker and Wayfinder.

All systems have their pros and cons. Trekker is specially developed for people with

visual impairments. Wayfinder is a system that can offer streamed downloading of

route information, if this is required.

There are several digital road databases available in many countries, e.g. Navteq

and TeleAtlas. They have limited wealth of details and actuality and are basically

intended for vehicular traffic.

In Sweden an effort is made to collect and store more qualified data in a National

Road Data Base – NVDB. Currently it’s limited to road information for car drivers.

At the beginning of 2007 road information for cyclists will be possible to store in

the NVDB.

The local municipalities are building up Local Road Data Bases, LV:s. They have

capacity for more sophisticated information, like accurate pedestrian routes, and

the information can be frequently up-dated. This work has started in Stockholm

with the development of a Digital Pedestrian Foot-path Network (DG).

It’s important to point out, that the system is designed with open border lines so

that other implementations can hook on.

Besides resources for autonomous navigation, it is expected that the user will need

to communicate with a manned alarm or service centre via a mobile telephone. The

centre should be able to take care of both 'soft' calls (including calls from camera

mobiles) with oral and visual support information, and 'sharp' calls with a

requirement for, for example, the support of rescue units. The alarm/service centre

can be one and the same unit or they can be stationed at different locations. It is

expected that the alarm centre will have rapid access to the rescue services. The

service centre can be anything from a county alarm centre to a relative's home. In

any event, it should be possible for all personal details to be extracted from, for

instance, a database. It is also important that the alarm/service centre can locate

the user.

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

Owing to the wide range of both hardware and software, a final decision on the

choice of products must represent a balance between the various pros and cons.

The most important thing, besides satisfying the needs of the user as far as

possible and comprehensively, is to stick to non-proprietary solutions and, where

this is not possible, to conclude contracts with those suppliers who will provide the

greatest possible freedom for different component choices.

A system like this is generic and is the basis for all three trials in Sweden. It will be

possible to use in any place in Sweden. It will be designed so as to be easily

adaptable to local transport information systems.

Conclusion

Many groups of people with disabilities experience problems when moving around

in an unknown environment. It has been anticipated that modern satellite

navigation systems could form a basis for overcoming most of the problems.

A study has been made in Sweden on this issue. It concludes that there are

significant possibilities to improve the situation for the groups in question with the

aid of GPS-based navigation, combined with the use of mobile telephony and

databases for storing maps, personal information etc. The study also suggests the

National Post and Telecom Agency to support three pilot studies in Sweden to

explore the pros and cons for a few groups of people with disabilities in the three

largest cities in Sweden.

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

2.2.2 Speech processing

Klaus Fellbaum and Diamantino Freitas

2.2.2.1 Introduction and state of the art

Communication is an essential part of human life. If communication is disturbed or

impossible, the consequences are loneliness and isolation.

It is well known that speech plays a key role in communication and it explains why

humans also want to have speech as a means of communication/interaction with

computers. Although human-like speech dialogue with computers is still far off,

even with current state-of-the-art technology, the benefits and potential of speech

processing are obvious. As will be seen in the next sections, this is especially true

in applications for persons with disabilities. Well-known examples are reading

machines for blind people, voice control for wheel chairs or speech-based dictation

systems for physically impaired computer users.

This chapter presents some new applications for speech-based systems that are

(partly) still at the research or prototype stage. Since some of our readers may not

be familiar with the principles of electronic speech processing and the state of the

art, our presentation will start with some relevant basic definitions.

Speech recognition or equivalently voice recognition is the automatic recognition

of spoken words or sentences by a machine. In many cases the result of the

recognition is a displayed text and then the terms voice-to-text or dictation system

are used. Other important areas for speech recognition are systems for the

recognition of spoken commands and the control of basic functions of a personal

computer.

There are three main modes for speech recognition.

a) Isolated word recognition up to a vocabulary in the order of 50 000 words and

more is on the market. Most of the systems have to be trained before they reach

a good level of reliability (up to 98 to 99% correct recognition in controlled

environments) or they are speaker-adaptive, that means, at the beginning the

recognition accuracy is very moderate, but after intensive use it continues to

improve and the accuracy can also reach up to 98...99%.

b) Word spotting or key word recognition is another form of recognition with the

aim of recognizing key words in continuous speech. Let us consider, for example, a

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

flight information dialogue system where a user wants to know when is the next

flight to Brussels, he might ask in a different way like: ‘next flight to Brussels’ or

‘when will be the next flight to Brussels?’ or ‘please give me the next flight to

Brussels’. In all of theses cases the key words are obviously ‘next’ and ‘Brussels’

and the rest of the words are not relevant. The advantage of word spotting is that

the flight destination can be formulated as desired which makes the dialogue

much more user friendly.

c) Continuous speech recognition has also reached market maturity but the

recognition accuracy still leaves to be desired as regards robustness. The main

applications for continuous speech recognition are dictation systems which can

recognize more than 1 Million word forms. The term ‘word forms’ is not equivalent

to words. It has to be noted that most words may appear in different forms (basic

form, flexions, different tenses etc.) and each word form has to be considered as

another word (pattern). That’s why such a high number of word forms is needed

for ordinary office vocabulary.

A serious problem of all speech recognizers is their sensitivity to noise. However,

for certain applications in noisy environments (factory floor, aeroplane cockpit, cars

in heavy traffic) very robust recognizers have been developed, but the vocabulary

is of moderate size (in the order of some hundred words, isolated mode). This is,

on the other hand, not very restricting because the vocabulary being used in such

situations is rather limited anyway.

Speaker recognition tries to identify and/or verify the identity of the speaking

person and is applied in many security-sensitive situations such as access control

to secured areas or bank transactions. State of the art systems have an accuracy

(correct recognition) of up to 98%.

Speech replay is the speech reproduction by a technical system (computer etc.). The

speech being used was spoken in advance by a person and then stored in a fixed

memory or disk. Typical applications are announcement systems (e.g. in public

transportation) or system messages. A significant characteristic of a replay system

is its limited vocabulary. The speech quality is usually good, in principle it can be

increased to a high-quality level, this is only a question of the amount invested in

the recording equipment and the storage capacity. It is important to mention that

the adequate quality level strongly depends on the application [Jekosch, 2005]. For

example, a user accepts a lower quality in a telephone conversation than in a radio

announcement.

Speech synthesis has, in contrast to speech replay, an unlimited vocabulary. The

speech is concatenated artificially from more or less short speech elements like

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

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phonemes or diphones or even longer segments. Although speech synthesis has

reached an advanced level of maturity, it still suffers from an audible ‘machine

accent’ but since the intelligibility (not necessarily the naturalness!) of synthesized

speech is comparable to natural speech, this kind of speech is usable in many

practical applications. As a well-known example the screen readers for blind people

can be mentioned.

A very important parameter which strongly influences overall speech quality (in

both speech replay as well as speech synthesis) is intonation or, more generally,

prosody. It is composed of several speech features such as intonation, speed and

rhythm, pauses, intensity and is connected to other features such as voice quality

( b r e a t h y, m o d a l , c r e a k y, e t c ) . All these features, together as a whole

multidimensional set, carry so-called supra-segmental information to the utterance

that enriches the meaning and can make speech human-like and intelligent.

Prosody is the underlying speech layer that conveys pragmatic information. It can

also provide para-linguistic and non-linguistic information like intentional and

emotional information, respectively [Botinis, 1997].

For more details about the principles of electronic speech processing, the

interested reader is referred to the literature; recommended are for example [Furui,

2001], [Gardner-Bonneau, 1999], [Vary, 2006] and, for an extended description of

the mathematic principles of speech processing, [Deller, 2000].

2.2.2.2 Speech-based applications for persons with

disabilities

Advances in synthetic speech

Multilingual speech synthesis

We are living in a multilingual world. Especially in Europe, different languages are

closely related and usually we are trained from school to speak different

languages. The same situation exists with written documents or websites. It is thus

obvious that most speech synthesis applications (for example enquiry systems or

reading machines for blind persons) have to be multilingual.

There are several multilingual systems on the market. One of these was produced

by the Bell Laboratories (AT&T, Murray Hill, New Jersey). It functions as a

synthesizer for English, French, Spanish, Italian, German, Russian, Romanian,

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

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Chinese and Japanese. Interestingly, the underlying software for both linguistic

analysis and speech generation is identical for all languages, with the exception of

English. However, it is clear that the acoustic elements, used for the concatenation

into continuous synthetic speech, must be spoken from a native speaker and thus

this part of synthesis is language-dependent. The same holds for the base data of

linguistic analysis. However, these components are stored externally in tables and

parameter files and they can be loaded when needed in real-time. A detailed

description of the AT&T Synthesis can be found in the book of Sproat [Sproat,

1998]; the synthesis of different languages is demonstrated on [Sythesis testsite

AT&T].

Another system which became very popular in the speech synthesis society is the

MBROLA system. “The aim of the MBROLA project, initiated by the TCTS Lab of the

Faculté Polytechnique de Mons (Belgium), is to obtain a set of speech synthesizers

for as many languages as possible, and provide them free for non-commercial

applications. The ultimate goal is to boost academic research on speech synthesis,

and particularly on prosody generation, known as one of the biggest challenges

taken up by Text-To-Speech synthesizers for the years to come.” More details and

demos are presented on the home page of MBROLA [MBROLA].

Emotional speech

Emotional speech can remarkably extend the content and expression of spoken

information. Moreover, sometimes the way how items are expressed is more

important than what is expressed. The key parameter which determines the

emotional content is the prosody as discussed before.

A great deal of work has been done in the recognition and production of

emotional speech; among others, there was the EU FP6-IST project HUMAINE

(Human-Machine Interaction Network on Emotion). For more information visit the

home page which is under [HUMAINE].

In a man-machine communication, let’s consider a speech-based dialogue system,

emotional speech can be used in two directions:

a) The user speaks with emotions and the system has to recognize these emotions

in addition to the ‘pure’ speech recognition. As an example, a situation might occur

where the system does not sufficiently recognize the user and reacts in an

unsatisfying manner. This is very often annoying and leads to an angry voice. If this

angriness is recognized by the system, then it might be wise for it to react with

excuses and/or an explanation why the recognition failed [Lee, 2002].

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

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b) If the system produces speech (be it stored or synthetic speech), it can in

principle be used to express emotions. Everyone has a need to transmit emotions.

But if we think of deaf persons or those with severe speech disorders or people

suffering from muscular dystrophies and cerebral diseases that often have also

aphasia along with body paralysis, these persons are unable to express their

emotions through speech although they have a strong desire to do so.

Several research groups have investigated emotional speech. Concerning the

speech quality and, above all, the naturalness of the recognizability of the

emotions, the results are encouraging; see for example [Burghardt, 2006].

Iida, Campbell and Yasumura [Lida, 1998] describe an application concept of an

affective communication system for people with disabilities who cannot by

themselves express their emotions. They get help from some buttons for the

selection of emotions. These ‘emoticons’ are very helpful and they can be easily

added to an ordinary text-to-speech synthesis (figure 2.6).

Figure 2.6 EMOTICONS (Emotion keys).

In many cases, a user (who cannot speak as well as a normal speaking person)

needs a synthesizer to produce a specific voice from a selected person or with

specific features. The underlying concept which fulfills this requirement is called

voice personalisation. This facility is very interesting when there is the need to

t ransmit synthetic speech from a text given by a specific person. Vo i c e

personalisation is nowadays available at a constantly decreasing cost with the

advent of statistical speech-model-based speech synthesizers [Barros, 2005].

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

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Support of a speech conversation for hard of hearing

or deaf persons

In this application two persons have, for example, a telephone conversation. One

person has normal hearing, the other has a severe hearing impairments. The idea

is now to support the hard of hearing person with additional visual information,

either in the form of an animated face or as text or in both forms which are

presented on a screen (figure 2.7).

The technical implementation works as follows. The speech of the normal hearing

person is automatically recognized by a high-level speech recognition system. The

result is a text which can be displayed. In the next processing step the text is

converted into control parameters for a talking head. At least the person with

hearing problems can receive the message in three versions: as original speech, as

text and as an animated face. It is assumed here that the hard of hearing person

speaks normally, which is quite common.

Figure 2.7 Telephone conversation, the partner on the right is hard of hearing.

If the person is deaf, he or she will not have serious problems to understand the

message by reading the text and watching the animated face. But problems arise

when the deaf person wants to respond to the normal hearing person. This

problem will be discussed in the next section.

There are several research projects dealing with speech to text or speech to

animated faces. One of it is SYNFACE which was developed at the KTH in

Stockholm until 2004 [SYNFACE, 2005]. In the meantime it has become a

commercial product. The speech recognition is based on phoneme recognition and

a speech synthesizer activates the talking head, mainly the lips. The movements of

the talking head are synchronized with the telephone speech and thus the listener

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

can directly complete the part of the information which he or she does not hear.

A similar system that is on the market is iCommunicator [icommunicator]. The

system aims mainly at the group of deaf persons, but also at those who are hard

of hearing. The kernel of the system is the Dragon Naturally Speaking Professional

Engine [DRAGON, 2006], at the moment one of the best and most powerful

speech-to-text systems on the market. iCommunicator runs on a higher end laptop

computer. Among other features, iCommunicator converts in real-time, speech to

text, speech to video sign language, speech to computer generated voice, text to

computer-generated voice or to video sign language.

A third system, which can be mentioned here, was developed in a project called

MUSSLAP at the University of West Bohemia in Pilsen, Czech Republic. One of the

outcomes was a real-time recognizer which presents its results as text on the

screen. As a very impressive example, an ice hockey match is shown on a tv screen

and the system automatically recognizes the comments of the reporter and

displays the result as text in real-time [MUSSLAP].

Speech processing for the communication of a deaf person

If deaf persons communicate over a distance (telecommunication), a very common

method since a long time is text telephony or fax which also has the advantage

that the communication between deaf and normal hearing persons is possible

without any problem. For several years, SMS has also served as a cheap and

widespread communication tool. Above all, the Internet with its many services (for

example Web and email) has dramatically widened the communication in general

and specially between deaf and normal hearing persons.

On the other hand, text communication has some drawbacks: text information is

rather impersonal and the typing procedure is laborious and time consuming and

not all deaf people have a sufficiently high level of understanding of written

language to be able to access text.

For these reasons most deaf persons prefer sign language communication. This

form of communication has remarkable advantages:

• Sign language is fast and its speed is comparable to speech because sign

language is produced ‘multidimensional’. The ‘speaker’ can express several

items at the same time, for example using in parallel both hands and face

expressions. There are, however, some exceptions, which make sign

language slower, among others, finger spelling or some complicated words

can be mentioned, but these exceptions do not significantly affect the

average speed

30

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

• Sign language is individual. Persons can (beside the ‘pure’ information)

express their personal accentuations and emotions.

The adequate tool for a sign language communication is obviously video

telephony, mostly using a standard like H.320 which is also compatible to ISDN.

With the advent of UMTS (3G) and WLAN, a mobile video communication became

reality. In both cases usually relay services are applied to connect deaf users, but

also, with the aid of a sign language interpreter, deaf and normal hearing

subscribers can (indirectly) communicate.

Several projects exist which work on sign language transmission. One is the

European IST project WISDOM (Wireless Information Services for Deaf people On

the Move, lifetime from 2000 to 2004), in which several advanced wireless services

for the Deaf were developed and evaluated [WISDOM].

The situation is different when a direct (face-to-face) situation between a normal

hearing and a deaf person is considered. As a first observation it comes out that

the communication is obviously much easier from the side of the deaf person

because he or she has learned to understand a speaking person by lip reading and

watching face expressions and gestures. Although this special form of ‘human

speech recognition’ is never perfect (among other reasons because some sounds

are invisibly produced inside the mouth), often fragmented utterances can be

completed by the context. It is interesting to state that the recognition of emotions

works rather well by watching the face movements and gestures.

For an additional support of the communication process for the deaf person, a

speech to text and/or a speech to sign language transformation, as described in

the previous section, might be useful. The result of such a transformation can be

presented on a display or, more advanced; it could be beamed to little mirrors in

the spectacles of the deaf person.

But looking at the other direction: what about the normal hearing person who

does not understand sign language?

If we imagine this situation, we can state that - even without any knowledge of

sign language – valuable information is transferred about the intention of the deaf

person and his/her emotions when we watch gestures, mimic, body movements

and other kinds of visual information. In this respect, the situation is similar to

those of the other communication direction (from the speaking to the deaf person).

The key problem is the recognition of the objective, content-carrying part of the

message. For this we can come back to the relay service solution. The deaf person

has a camera (maybe as a part of a mobilephone) which records the gestures to

31

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

the interpreter who translates them into speech, which is then audible for the

hearing person. This procedure works well as several projects (also the WISDOM

project) have shown, but the problem here is the availability of the interpreter and

the fact that a face-to-face situation often happens unforeseen.

Obviously a better solution would involve an automatic gesture recognition which

transforms gestures into synthetic speech. In this case the normal hearing person

receives the information of the deaf person twice: as gestures and as voice and

both forms of information complete each other. There is no need for emotional

synthetic speech because emotions are optimally expressed by gestures and the

face, as mentioned before.

It is important to state that automatic gesture recognition or, more extended,

automatic sign language recognition, is probably one of the most difficult research

tasks in the area of communication aids. Difficulties are:

• the detection and triggering of face and hands

• the ambiguity and individual variations of the movements, above all from

the hand movements and

• the structure of the sign language itself which has no strict one-to-one

relation to text or speech syntax.

The first systems for sign laguage recognition were based on the data glove(s).

These gloves are well-known tools, mostly used in the Artificial Intelligence

research and in entertainment applications. The advantage of such a glove is the

precision with which hand positions are recognized. But for many situations in the

daily life, the use of gloves might be too uncomfortable.

A better (but much more complicated) alternative are video-based systems. The

deaf person uses sign language, a video camera recognizes gestures and facial

movements (above all lip movements) and as result of the video processing, the

sign language is transformed into text which can be displayed somewhere and/or

the text can be transformed into synthetic speech. A very detailed description of

problems and solutions in that area are presented in a recently published book on

human interaction with machines [Kraiss, 2006].

We will now briefly mention some research projects.

In the framework of the European IST research program ARTHUR, the Lab. of

Computer Vision and Media Technology, Aalborg University Denmark investigated

the automatic recognition of hand gestures used in wearable Human Computer

32

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

Interfaces [Moeslund, 2003]. Different gesture detection devices are described,

among others the ‘classical’ data glove and reduced versions of it (index finger

tracker with a wired or wireless connection to the receiver), a ‘Gesture Wrist’, a

‘Gesture Pendant’ and, of course, camera solutions.

A famous researcher, Christian Vogler, who is deaf himself, has made his PhD in

automatic recognition of American Sign Language (ASL). He describes the problem

of simultaneous events in sign language (for example, the handshape can change

at the same time as the hand moves from one location to another, or hand(s) and

face express signs simultaneously). Another important aspect is the segmentation

of the continuous stream of movements into discrete signs and the breaking-down

of signs into their constituent phonemes. If this works satisfactorily, the next steps,

namely transformation of signs into text and then into synthetic speech, are

relatively easy to manage. For more information see [Vogler, 2000].

Thad Starner and his group from Georgia University of Technology, Atlanta USA,

are working on several projects in American Sign Language recognition. They use

multiple sensors for the recognition, among others a hat-mounted video camera

and accelerometers with three degrees of freedom mounted on the wrist and torso

to increase the information of the video camera. For control reasons, the deaf user

has a head-mounted display which shows what the camera captures [Brasher,

2003]. The aim of the activities is a flexible mobile system for the output of text or

speech, depending on the application. Figure 2.8 shows the head-mounted camera

and a recorded gesture.

Figure 2.8 Base-cab-mounted camera and a recorded gesture

(with kind permission of Thad Starner, Media Lab, MIT).

Visual and audio-visual speech recognition based on

face or lip reading

A methodology which is quite similar to gesture recognition, mentioned before, is

automatic facial reading or lip reading. The result is a text sequence which

represents the content of the utterance. Figure 2.9 shows the region that is

investigated for lip reading.

33

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

Figure 2.9 The region of interest of the video facial image.

The automatic recognition of facial images has been used for a number of years

for the improvement of a (spoken) speech recognition under noisy conditions and

it has been proved to be very successful [Kraiss, 2006], [Moura, 2006], although

the accuracy, obtained with purely visual speech recognition, is not as high as in

audio speech recognition. There are a number of reasons for this; one is that visual

speech is partially phonetically ambiguous.

Nevertheless, for the communication between deaf and normal hearing persons,

facial or lip reading is a very valuable help and, as previously mentioned, the

human face can optimally express emotions and this information is dectectable for

the visual recognizer.

Small-vocabulary preliminary trials have been reported [Moura, 2006] to obtain

word recognition rates of about 65% for a one speaker lip-reading task with

grammar correction. Interestingly, the performance of professional observer was in

the range of 70%-80% for the same corpus. Figure 2.10 shows the situation under

remarkable noise conditions and it demonstrates the advantage (in terms of

recognized words error rate – WER) of a simple combination in a multi-stream

recognition approach [Moura, 2006].

60,00%

50,00%

40,00%

30,00%

20,00%

10,00%

0,00%

Original

-5dB

-10dB

-15dB

-20dB

WER-Audio

WER-Video

WER-AV

Figure 2.10 Variation of the total word error rate in function of the signal-to-noise ratio.

34

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

Correction of speech defects, unintelligible speech

If a person is unable to speak ‘normally’ resulting in unsatisfactory intelligibility, a

speech recognition and synthesis system can be a valuable aid. The impaired

speech is the input for the recognizer, which converts it into text and the text is

then converted into clean synthetic speech.

It is very important to state that even totally unintelligible speech or any acoustic

utterance can be recognized, the only prerequisite is the ability of the ‘speaker’ to

reproduce utterances with sufficient similarities and to train the recognizer with

this kind of ‘vocabulary’. As a matter of fact, even emotions can be expressed,

using emotional speech synthesis. Finally, visual speech recognition, as mentioned

before, can significantly contribute to better speech recognition.

A system for speech therapy

It is well known that many deaf persons have fully functioning speech organs but

the problem is that they cannot control articulation because they do not have

acoustic feedback through the ears.

When the deafness occurred after the complete language/speech acquisition, the

deaf person can maintain (with restrictions) his/her speaking ability with the help

of a speech therapist. But there is the necessity of a permanent training with a

therapist which is obviously not always possible.

Many attempts have been made to develop systems which perform a visual control

of a spoken utterance. The time signal or the spectrum of the speech are not very

suitable because the relation between the sound production and the resulting

signal is rather complicated and abstract.

A better solution is obviously a face animation showing two speaking faces: the

‘reference’ face and the (deaf) speaker’s face. Thus the deaf person can directly see

deviations between the two faces and he or she can try to adapt. Since some

sounds are produced invisibly inside the mouth, as mentioned earlier, a useful help

is a transparent mouth region (figure 2.11).

Figure 2.11 Face animation with a transparent area of the mouth region [Pritsch, 2005].

35

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

Screen readers for blind or partially sighted persons

The usual computer desktop metaphor practically leaves blind persons out because

it is a Graphical User Interface (GUI), based on a more or less rich graphic display

of icons, windows, pointers and text. Since blind persons require non-visual media,

the alternative is, among tactile information (Braille), primarily an aural interface

which can be called, analogous to GUI, Aural User Interface (AUI), based on the

terminology supported by many authors including T.V.Raman [Raman, 1997].

Since the early 80’s, after some trials with special versions of self-voicing software,

capable of driving a speech synthesizer and so providing access for blind persons,

a more general concept appeared and a family of applications, called screen-

readers, was initiated with the purpose of creating a vocal rendering of the

contents of the screen under user control through the keyboard, using a text-to-

speech converter [Wikipedia]. In this way, properly installed screen reader software

stays active in the operating system and operates in the background, analysing the

actual contents of the screen. From the initial command-line interface (CLI) to the

now existing ubiquitous graphical user interface (GUI) screen reader software has

evolved much in 2,5 decades.

Screen readers can also analyse many visual constructs like menus and alert or

dialogue boxes and transform them into speech to allow interaction with a blind

user.

Navigation in the screen is possible as well, to allow a non-linear or even random

exploration and acquisition of the depicted information. Control of the produced

speech is normally given to the user so that quite fast navigation becomes possible

when the user works with shortcuts. A simulation of a screen reader is available at

the WebAIM website [WebAIM].

Although many screen reader applications exist, there are many limitations that

current screen readers cannot overcome per se, for instance those related to

images and structured text (tables etc.). Screen readers cannot describe images,

they can only produce a readout of a textual description of these and the user has

problems to realize how the page is organized.

The basic requirement in terms of speech processing for screen reader applications

is a robust text-to-speech converter with the possibilities of spelling and reading

random individual characters and all kinds of text elements that may appear like

numeric expressions, a b b r e v i a t i o n s, acronyms and other coded elements.

Punctuation is also spoken in general, besides being determinant in introducing

some prosodic manipulation in the synthetic voice.

36

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

Following this idea, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) in 1998, with the issue

of the Cascading Style Sheet 2 (CSS2) recommendation, has introduced the Aural

Cascading Style Sheet (ACSS); a chapter respective to the acoustical rendering of

a web page is presented in [WDAC].

Auditory icons, sometimes also called earcons, are made audible to the user by

means of a loudspeaker or earphone system that should have advanced acoustic

features (high quality, stereo etc.). The acoustic elements contain voice properties

like speech-rate, voice-family, pitch, pitch-range, stress, and others that are used as

command parameters to the speech synthesizer.

An extended investigation of spatial acoustic features as a component of a screen

reader was performed in the GUIB (Graphical User Interfaces for the Blind) project

in the framework of the European TIDE initiative [Crispien, 1995]. The idea was to

generate an acoustic screen in front of the user on which windows, icons and other

graphic elements are audible on different places, and the mouse position is also

audible when the mouse is moving.

In a former project (AudioBrowser, 2003-2005, see [Repositorium]), developed for

Portuguese, but applicable for most other languages, the structure or outline of a

web page can be discovered and used as a table of contents, and it was

implemented successfully. The user in this application can freely navigate inside the

contents of each window or jump between windows from contents to tables of

contents or vice-versa in order to scan or navigate through the page in a more

structured and friendly way. The blind or low-vision user is constantly helped by the

text-to-speech device that follows the navigation accurately.

The W3C consortium, through its Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) has been

issuing a relevant set of Web contents accessibility guidelines (WCAG), now in

version 2. These guidelines are greatly helpful in orienting web page design for

accessibility [WAI]. Authoring Tool Accessibility Guidelines (ATAG), nowadays in

version 2.0, are also important for developers of authoring tools.

Reproduction of complex documents for blind persons

Complex documents like mathematical and other scientific, technical or even

didactic documents are usually equipped with graphical representations. Above all,

equations and other mathematical expressions have posed a substantial barrier to

the access by visually impaired persons. Most representations and charts may also

be included in this group.

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2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

Representation in special Braille codes of complex mathematical elements can

almost totally solve the problem for blind persons. The LAMBDA project [LAMBDA,

2005] has produced a mathematical rendering package using such a system.

In the case of more lengthy mathematical objects, more refined solutions might be

p r e f e rable using audio rendering of the mathematical expressions through

synthetic speech. Using the codification of the expression in MathML, a browsable

textual description of the expression can be automatically derived from the

MathML code by means of a special lexicon and a grammar. Both must be specially

designed for the purpose according to the mathematical conventions and concerns

of non-ambiguity of the textual description. This work has been carried out in the

AUDIOMATH project [Ferreira, 2005] carried out at the Faculdade de Engenharia

da Universidade do Porto. A demonstration page is available at [Ferreira].

Acoustical cues, contributing to the clearness of the speech rendering, are also

important. Previous authors have used, for instance, prosodic modifications such

as raising or lowering the pitch of the synthetic voice to signal upper or lower parts

of the expression, respectively. In the work of AUDIOMATH the influence of pitch

movements as well as of pauses during description of expressions was studied and

rules were extracted. An intra-formula navigation mechanism was designed in

order to allow the user to explore the formula at her/his own will thereby not

putting too much stress on audio memory in the case of longer formulas.

2.2.2.3 Conclusions and future developments

The aim of this chapter was to show how electronic speech processing works and

how persons with disabilities can benefit from it.

Since speech is man’s most important form of communication, all efforts must be

done to make speech communication possible, and if the speech channel is

disturbed, technical solutions have to be found to overcome the obstacles.

The accuracy and quality of modern speech recognition systems as well as

synthesis systems has reached a state of maturity which allows the development

of very poweful support systems for persons with disabilities and to bridge the gap

between these persons and those without disabilities, as was shown, for example,

between deaf persons and the rest of the world.

Looking into the future of speech technology, some important research areas can

be identified as follows:

38

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

• Improving the robustness of speech recognition systems. Although the

robustness has been remarkably improved over the last years, the systems

are still far behind human capabilities. Noise, especially non-stationary noise,

background speakers or music can still reduce the recognition reliability well

below an acceptable error rate. Improvement is expected (and partly proven,

as has been seen) from a multimodal recognition which includes also visual

information (above all, mimics, facial and hand gestures)

• A more extended use of semantic and pragmatic information. When the

system (recognizer or synthesizer) ‘knows’ what the speaker wants to

express, which covers both, the content and the emotion, then the

recognizer can usefully complete a spoken message which has recognition

errors. A synthesizer could automatically generate the right accentuations

and emotional ‘colouring’ of the speech. For the sake of completeness it has

to be mentioned here that the permanent improvement of the quality of

synthetic speech also includes multilinguality as well as speaker-specific

synthesis and will remain within the scope of research. Audio rendering of

complex documents through synthetic speech is also a very important

development area where document description strategies, their conversion

into full text form and intra-document navigation or browsing are the crucial

steps

• A challenge and wide field of research is sign language recognition. As

mentioned earlier, there are several research activities but much more work

has to be done. More needs to be known about structures of sign

languages (and there are very many and all are different!) and their relations

to spoken and written languages. Automatic translations should be possible

in different directions (sign language into speech and vice versa, sign

language into another sign language, speech into a foreign sign language

and vice versa, for example German speech into American sign language).

Also the technical part of the problem is challenging. Using the Ambient

Intelligence (AmI) approach, we can expect micro cameras in the clothes or

in a pendant as well as position sensors in finger rings etc., and the

environment will have enough intelligence to take on most of the processing

activities needed for recognition and translation

• For blind persons, screenreaders and the automatic recognition of graphics,

pictures and the environment are a never ending research area. As a matter

of fact, for blind persons a verbal (spoken) description of the recognition

result is, in many cases, the best solution. As before, AmI will be of crucial

importance here.

39

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

It should be mentioned here that the enumeration given in this chapter from being

complete. Further examples will be given in other chapters, showing that speech

technology and speech applications will play a dominant role whenever

communication is discussed.

2.2.2.4 References

BARROS M.J., MAIA R., TOKUDA, K. RESENDE, F.G., FREITAS, D., (2005). HMM-

based European Portuguese TTS System, artigo apresentado e publicado nas

actas da Interspeech'2005 - Eurospeech — 9th European Conference on Speech

Communication and Technology, Lisboa.

BOTINIS (ed.) et al., (1997). Intonation: Theory, Models and Applications.

Proceedings of the ESCA Worksop Sept. 18-20 Athens, Greece.

BRASHER, H., STARNER, T. et al., (2003). Using Multiple Sensors for Mobile Sign

Language Recognition. ISCW White Plains, WA,

Also: http://www-static.cc.gatech.edu/~thad/031_research.htm

BURGHARDT, F. et al., ( 2006). Examples of synthesized emotional speech

http://emosamples.syntheticspeech.de/

CRISPIEN, K., FELLBAUM, K. (1995). Use of Acoustic Information in Screen

Reader Programs for Blind Computer Users: Results from the TIDE Project GUIB.

In: Placencia Porrerro, I.,& de la Bellacasa, R. P., (Eds.): The European Context for

Assistive Technology - Proceedings of the 2nd TIDE Congress, Paris, , IOS Press,

Amsterdam.

DELLER, J.R., (2000). Discrete-time processing of speech signals.

New York : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

DRAGON Naturally Speaking Professional Engine, (2006). NUANCE

communications http://www.nuance.com/naturallyspeaking/.

FERREIRA, H., FREITAS, D., (2005). AudioMath—Towards Automatic Readings of

Mathematical Expressions”, 11th International Conference on Human Computer

Interaction, Las Vegas, EUA.

FERREIRA. http://lpf-esi.fe.up.pt/~audiomath

FURUI, S., (2001). Digital speech processing, synthesis, and recognition

2nd ed., rev. and expanded. New York : Marcel Dekker.

40

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

GARDNER-BONNEAU, D., (1999). Human Factors and Voice Interactive Systems.

Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston.

HUMANE, Network of Excellence. http://emotion-research.net/aboutHUMAINE.

iCommunicator homepage. http://www.myicommunicator.com/].

IIDA, A., CAMPBELL, N., YASUMURA, M. (1998)., Emotional Speech as an

Effective Interface for People with Special Needs, apchi, p. 266, Third Asian

Pacific Comp. and Human Interaction.

JEKOSCH, U., (2005). Voice and Speech Quality Perception. Springer-Verlag

Berlin, Heidelberg.

KRAISS, K.F., (ed.), (2006). Advanced Man-Machine Interaction. Springer Berlin

Heidelberg, New York.

SYNFACE project research page http://www.speech.kth.se/synface/.

LEE, C.M., PIERACCINI, R., (2002). Combining Acoustic and Language

Information for Emotion Recognition. Proc. of the International Conference on

Speech and Language Processing (ICSLP 2002). Denver, Co.

LAMBDA (2005). http://www.lambdaproject.org/.

MBROLA website http://tcts.fpms.ac.be/synthesis/.

MOESLUND, T., NORGAARD, L., (2003). A Brief Overview of Hand Gestures used

in Wearable Human Computer Interfaces. Technical Report CVMT 03-02,

Computer Vision and Media Technology Lab., Aalborg University, DK.

MOURA A., PÊRA V., FREITAS, D., (2006). (in Portuguese) Um Sistema de

Reconhecimento Automático de Fala para Pessoas Portadoras de Deficiência”,

artigo publicado nas actas da conferência IBERDISCAP’06, realizada em Vitória-

ES, Brasil.

MUSSLAP. University of West Bohemia, MUSSLAP website

http://www.musslap.zcu.cz/en/audio-visual-speech-recognition/.

PRITSCH, M., (2005). Visual speech training system for deaf persons. Proceedings

of the 16th Conference Joined with the 15th Czech-German Workshop “Speech

Processing, Prague, Sept. 26-28, 2005. TUD press Dresden, Germany.

RAMAN, T.V., (1997). Auditory User Interfaces, Kluwer Academic Publishers,

August.

41

2.2. New technologies to help people with disabilities

and elderly people

RAMAN, T.V., (1998). Conversational gestures for direct manipulation on the

audio desktop, Proceedings of the third international ACM SIGACCESS

Conference on Assistive Technologies, Marina del Rey, California, United States,

pgs 51 – 58. ISBN:1-58113-020-1.

REPOSTIRORUIM. https://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/bitstream/

1822/761/4/iceis04.pdf#search=%22audiobrowser%22 SPROAT, R. (ed.)

(1998).: Multilingual Text-to-Speech Synthesis. Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Dordrecht, Boston, London.

SYNFACE - Synthesised talking face derived from speech for hard of hearing

users of voice channels

http://www.speech.kth.se/synface/ and http://www.synface.net/.

SYNTHESIS TESTSITE, AT&T. http://www.research.att.com/~ttsweb/tts/demo.php.

VARY, P., MARTIN, R., (2006). Digital Speech Transmission. Enhancement, Coding

and Error Concealment. J. Wiley&Sons.

VOGLER, C. et al. A Framework for Motor Recognition with Applications to

American Sign Language and Gait Recognition.

http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~hms/2000/humo00.pdf

see also Vogler’s homepage http://gri.gallaudet.edu/~cvogler/research/.

WAI. Web accessibility homepage. http://www.w3.org/WAI/

WDAC (1999). Aural Cascading Style Sheets (ACSS), W3C Working Draft

http://www.w3.org/TR/WD-acss.

WebAIM Screen Reader Simulation.

http://www.webaim.org/simulations/screenreader.php

Wikipedia about screenreader http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_reader

WISDOM project page. http://www.bris.ac.uk/news/2001/wisdom.htm.

42

2.3.

New remote services

2.3 New remote services

2.3.1 Novel broadband-based services: new opportunities

for people with disabilities

Broadband trials by the National Post and Telecom Agency

(Post- och telestyrelsen PTS), in Sweden

Patrik Bystedt

PTS seven broadband trials

Broadband technology has become accessible for a steadily increasing proportion

of the population in Sweden. With the aid of more rapid data transmission it has

become possible to send and receive large quantities of information via computer

networks. The opportunities for communication have broadened with e-mail, chat

and video communications in real time. It has become easier to choose the means

of communication that best suits each individual. For people whose opportunities

for communication are limited owing to a disability, IT technology in general and

broadband in particular can often make things much easier.

In December 2001, the National Post and Telecom Agency (Post- och telestyrelsen,

PTS), in Sweden was commissioned by the Government to conduct a number of

trial operations where broadband technology was utilised to create new services

for people with a disability. One important issue was how the new technology

could be used and target-group adapted for these groups. The following seven

trials have been conducted:

• Service centre for people who are deafblind

• Distance education for people with mild aphasia

• Digital distribution of talking books to university students

• Broadband for people with intellectual impairment

• Distance education in sign language

• Winning Communication – distance guidance

• Mobile video communications for people who are deaf.

43

2.3.

New remote services

A common feature of these trials is that standardised technology has been used to

the greatest extent possible. By using, whenever possible, existing aids and

standard equipment, such as web cameras and ordinary personal computers, these

solutions prove more cost effective for society and users.

A socioeconomic evaluation of these trial services has been undertaken with the

assistance of the Center for Medical Technology Evaluation at Linköping University.

The so-called ‘ICF-model’ (International Classification of Disability, Functioning and

Health) has been used as an evaluation model.

Service centre for people who are deafblind

Being deafblind involves special problems that affect everyday life, for example,

reading food packaging, trying to find something you have lost that is actually

lying right under your nose, or quite simply checking whether you are neatly and

properly dressed.

Communication with others is a common problem for people who are deafblind.

This can sometimes be resolved with the help of a person with normal vision, a

personal assistant, a relative or someone who can be around to help and who can

communicate with a deafblind person.

The trial ‘Service centre for people who are deafblind’ aims to act as a supplement

to this, by a person who is deafblind being able to make use of technology to get

help in those cases where it suits them. Many situations can be solved rapidly and

easily with the remote service. This means that people who are deafblind will not

be so dependent upon help from people in their immediate surroundings.

In the trial conducted by the Association of the Swedish Deafblind (FSDB), a service

was developed whereby a person who is deafblind can communicate with a

manned service centre. With the aid of a computer-based terminal with cameras,

the person who is deafblind can contact the service centre via broadband. The

conversation is conducted through pictures, text and speech using the combination

that is most suitable for the deafblind person.

The most common kind of conversation comprises the person who is deafblind

using sign language to speak with the service centre, which responds with text. The

user reads the text with the aid of a Braille display which is connected to the

computer. If the user has residual vision or hearing, the service centre can also sign

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or speak. The controlling information can also be provided in another form, for

example, by a vibrating device that the user can feel on their body.

Figure 2.12 Service centre for people who are deafblind.

With the aid of cameras, the user can be seen or display an object at home that

the service centre can see. A moving, zoomable camera is used to show various

parts of the room, for example, to find a particular object or in order to read the

text on a jar.

During the trial period, a service centre was established and manned Monday to

Friday, 08.00 to 17.00, by personnel with backgrounds as sign language

interpreters. The trial has been received positively by the four deafblind persons

who used the service. The assessment was made that this method of

communication provides people who are deafblind with new opportunities to

communicate with everybody and that the services provided by the service centre

are important and valuable. It is also considered that people with visual

impairment could benefit from a similar service centre.

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Facts

Technology

Computer connected to broadband with software for total communication,

screen reader program and speech synthesis. Braille display, a stationary

analogue video camera for communication and a moving, zoomable and

remotely controlled camera connected to a video server for presentations.

Target group

FSDB has 400 deafblind members, but there are also deafblind people who

are not members. Another potential target group is people with visual

impairment.

Number of users

4

Project period

February 2003 - March 2004

Distance education for people with mild aphasia

It is becoming increasingly difficult to justify why students should live away from

home in order to participate in residential courses at folk high school. Distance

courses allow students to continue living at home while they are studying, which

is economical and often socially advantageous. If a prospective student has a

disability, the need to be able to remain in the home environment increases while

the need for contact with the outside world must also be met. People with aphasia

are often affected by a combination of disabilities, primarily difficulties with

communication, both spoken and written, together with some impaired motor

functions.

The aim of the distance education trial was primarily to consider adapted forms for

distance instruction using the best possible broadband technology available. The

vision was to develop and expand the work within distance education so that

people with mild aphasia would be given new opportunities for education and

personal development. This provides participants with the opportunity to attain an

enhanced quality of life and in some cases to return to working life.

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Figure 2.13 Distance education for people with mild aphasia.

For the group ‘people with mild aphasia’, the possibility of combining speech and

pictures is important to be able to communicate as effectively as possible. To share

documents, make use of a ‘whiteboard’ and make presentations using a computer

were common components for the training.

Karlskoga Folk High School, which was responsible for the implementation of the

project, has long experience of teaching people with aphasia. As part of the trial,

they have conducted distance education at scheduled times in, among other

subjects, Swedish and presentation techniques. Eight participants from various

parts of Sweden participated in the trial. Regular tuition was provided, three times

a week, with positive results, and the participants also made use of the opportunity

for sound and video contact for their own discussions with each other. The social

aspects of being able to use video conferencing to communicate with other people

with aphasia outside the teaching, has also been very much appreciated by

participants in the trial project.

The trial enhances the availability of effective adult education and means that it is

also easy to reuse the courses that have been prepared.

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Facts

Technology

Computer connected to broadband with web camera and headset, video

conference software (Click-to-Meet).

Target group

People with aphasia.

Number of users

8

Project period

July 2002 - December 2003

Digital distribution of talking books to university students

University students with a reading disability – people with visual impairment,

dyslexia and restricted mobility – are now able to get their course literature as

talking books. Students can order the talking books, which are then sent via post

from the Swedish Library of Talking Books and Braille (TPB) in Stockholm. Besides

the time that the dispatch actually takes, the borrower is dependent upon the book

being in stock, that is to say that no-one else has borrowed it. However, as talking

books are now digital produced in the international standard DAISY, it is possible

to handle them in a different way.

The trial in question is a broadband service that provides access to talking books

via digital distribution to students with a reading disability. A central digital talking

book archive, which has approximately 13 000 titles, is being built up by TPB,

where all recorded university literature is made available for downloading. The aim

is to provide access to literature through broadband technology to students with a

reading disability, on equal terms with other students.

The project has been conducted by TPB, which is the authority responsible for

satisfying the needs of people with visual impairment and other people with

reading disability for literature in the form of talking books, Braille books and

electronic media.

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Figure 2.14 Digital distribution of talking books to university students.

Through SUNET, the university computer network, the four university libraries that

have participated in the trial have access to broadband with high transmission

capacity. The average talking book is 225 MB in size and university books are often

twice as big, which imposes demands for rapid connections and an acceptable

download time. Equipment for downloading and burning CD-ROMs has been set

up within the library. When a student comes to the university library to borrow

course literature, the librarian simply downloads the talking book from the talking-

book archive and transfers it onto a CD-ROM for the student to borrow. The system

is simple to use and the talking books in the archive are always available, which

means that there is no waiting list.

The project also has two sub-projects where sub-deliveries and so-called

‘streaming reading’ are being tested. If the book is in the process of being

recorded, it can be downloaded to the student bit by bit in pace with the progress

of the recording. This can sometimes be decisive for keeping up with course

studies. Streaming reading of talking books over the Internet means that students

can themselves connect from home and read the relevant books, without needing

to go to the local library to download the talking books.

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The trial subjects who participated in the project have made frequent use of the

opportunity to download talking books and university libraries have demonstrated

great interest, even those who have not participated in the trial. In addition to the

trial subjects and the university libraries that participated in the project,

approximately 100 other students have made use of the service and 13 new

university libraries have gained access to the archive. The broadband service has

now been established as a regular service.

Facts

Technology

University library: Computers with a rapid broadband connection and CD

burners. The reading program EaseReaderOnline was used for streaming

reading.

Target group

People with reading disability (for example, people with visual impairment,

dyslexia, impairment to mobility)

Number of users

49

Project period

June 2002 - May 2004

Broadband for people with intellectual impairment

Intellectual impairment involves, among other things, difficulties in dealing with

abstract concepts and contexts, for example, time, quality, quantity, cause and

spatial relations. One consequence of this is that people who are disabled are

limited by their capacity to communicate with each other at a distance, for

instance, by telephone. If two people can see each other, and in this way perceive

body language, pronunciation and tone on the part of the person they are talking

to, communication is made significantly easier.

Being in control of your everyday life, for example, by gathering and understanding

public information, news, participating in leisure interests with others, shopping,

attending to your finances, writing to authorities and friends, are important

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activities that allow full participation in society and are essential for an

independent life. For many people with intellectual impairment, participation and

the opportunity to live independently is severely restricted. A computer with a

broadband connection provides opportunities for enhanced participation and

independence.

For the trial ‘Broadband for people with intellectual impairment’, two-way video

communications with high audio and picture quality are essential for

communication at a distance to function. The trial was implemented in

collaboration with the Municipality of Bollnäs, the Grunden Association in

Gothenburg and Höghammar School in Bollnäs.

Figure 2.15 Broadband for people with intellectual impairment.

The objective of the trial was to determine the benefits of broadband for people

with intellectual impairment. One important aim was to be able to communicate

and cooperate individually or in groups with the aid of two-way video

communications via the Internet. Another aim was to test the possibilities of

people with intellectual impairment to use the services on the Internet, for example

banking, e-commerce and other services. In addition to these activities, the aim

was also to provide participants with an opportunity to discover their own uses

and benefits from broadband.

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Members of the Grunden Association in Gothenburg and pupils at Höghammar

School in Bollnäs participated in the trial. For example, they tested various services

on the Internet and pooled their experiences in order to learn more about the

Internet as an everyday tool. Video communication was often conducted from

several people to several people, that is to say, between groups. The working

groups also collaborated on a joint web newspaper, publishing results and

experiences from the trial.

Experiences from the trial have shown that users have rapidly assimilated this new

method of communication and felt both the benefit and joy of using it. The Internet

and video-supported communications can facilitate distance communication. This

particularly applies to the opportunity to establish new contacts beyond the

individual’s circle comprising other people with disability. This is very important as

many people with intellectual impairment encounter impediments that limit their

opportunities to meet other people.

Facts

Technology

Studios (Gothenburg and Bollnäs): Computer connected to broadband, large

screen, video-conference program (Click-to-Meet), web camera, digital video

camera for better quality and documentation.

Home environment

Computer connected to broadband, video-conference program (Click-to-

Meet), web camera, and headset.

Target group

People with intellectual impairment

Number of users

6 people at Grunden Media in Gothenburg and 5 pupils at Höghammar

School in Bollnäs.

Project period

July 2002 – May 2004

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Distance education in sign language

Figure 2.16 Distance education in sign language.

Sign language is the first language of deaf people and it is consequently important

for people who are deaf to gain access to education in sign language. The adult

education courses in sign language that are currently on offer today for people

who are deaf are often arranged at boarding schools far from home. There is

consequently a great need for and interest in distance education.

The aim of the project was to use the framework of a flexible course to create an

opportunity for sign language interaction between course leaders and participants.

Communication takes place by video over the Internet, either as direct

communication or through the participants downloading video files or sending

video messages. The project is being conducted by the Swedish National

Association of the Deaf (SDR) in collaboration with Västanvik Folk High School in

Leksand.

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The project basically employs three methods of communication for interaction

between the teacher and the participants:

• Video files with course material and assignments in sign language that the

participants access via the Internet

• Participants’ feedback to the teacher in sign language via recorded video

messages

• The teachers and participants meet for scheduled lessons in a virtual

classroom on the Internet through videoconferencing.

The course should be easily accessible, through a user-friendly interface, and at a

reasonable cost for the individual user, without lowering educational standards.

The communication of high quality video over the Internet imposes great demands

on high bandwidth, but the equipment that participants require is a standard

computer, web camera and software. The course methods may also benefit people

who need lip-reading or signs to support their understanding.

Experience from the trial is that the technology functioned beyond all expectation

and the pupils were very positive towards the opportunity of communicating in

their first language at a distance. “Wonderful contact from 200 kilometres away!”,

according to one participant.

Facts

Technology

Computer connected to broadband, web camera, videoconferencing software

(Click-to-Meet).

Target group

People who are deaf or people with hearing impairment with sign language

as their first language.

Number of users

13

Project period

July 2002 – April 2004

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Winning communication – distance guidance

Figure 2.17 Winning communication – distance guidance.

Considerable resources are required to provide people with disability with effective

guidance, for example, about labour market issues. Limiting factors include access

to specialists in labour market guidance for deaf people and sign language

interpreters. Resources are also unevenly distributed across Sweden, which means

that it can take a long time for people with disability to get to meet these guidance

specialists.

The aim of the trial project known as ‘Winning Communication’ was to develop

ways of using video communication in regular work at the employment offices. The

primary goals for the group comprising jobseekers with disability were to facilitate

more rapid contact with specialists at the employment offices and thereby enhance

opportunities of finding work. At the same time, this would reduce both travel

costs and travel time.

Guidance can be provided individually and for groups. When the counsellor,

together with the applicant, identified the service need and decided on the most

appropriate method, the applicant was offered the opportunity of meeting an

expert at a distance. Together with his/her caseworker, the applicant met up with,

for example, a psychologist, teacher of the deaf/hard of hearing, teacher of the

d e a f, vision consultant, occupational therapist or other expert via video

communication. Communication is conducted using video, text and voice and the

counsellor is able to display documents and websites. The technical equipment is

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installed at ten employment offices in the counties of Uppsala and Västmanland,

which means that people with disability can visit their nearest employment office.

Experiences from the trials have been very positive. Ten employment offices took

part and guidance was provided both individually and with groups of up to five

people. During the trial period, distance guidance was integrated into the regular

operations. Meetings were considered to be effective and there were few

limitations for the scope of use of the concept.

The project also provides the preconditions for greater cooperation and a more

efficient transfer of competence between the staff at the employment offices who

work with people with disability.

This trial was based at the County Labour Board in the County of Uppsala and has

been co-financed by the National Labour Market Board (AMS). Methods for

providing distance guidance for deaf people have been applied in Uppsala for the

past couple of years with very good results. As distance guidance is now being

integrated into the regular operation, it will also continue in the future after the

conclusion of the trial project.

Facts

Technology

Computer connected to broadband with video camera, microphone and video

communication software.

Target group

People with impaired mobility, deaf people, people with hearing impairments,

people with visual impairments, people with intellectual occupational

disability, applicants suffering from asthma/allergies, people with dyslexia,

people with heart and/or lung diseases and other somatic-related

occupational disabilities.

Number of users

37

Project period

July 2002 – June 2004

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Mobile video communications for people who are deaf

Video calls via mobile telephones brought about a revolution in the

communication opportunities for people who are deaf. Text messages (SMS) soon

became an important means of communication for deaf people, although it uses

the second language of deaf people, Swedish. Video calls make it possible for deaf

people to use their first language – sign language – for mobile communications.

The third generation mobile telephony, 3G, has high capacity and is capable of

transmitting moving pictures, essential for allowing sign language use with a

mobile. The trial project ‘Mobile video communications for people who are deaf’

aimed to investigate how deaf people can use 3G telephones in order to

communicate with sign language. The project period was May 2004 to February

2005.

The trial group conducted video calls in real time, and also sent video messages to

each other. The possibilities that 3G technology offers were investigated and

evaluated by testing the various terminals and 3G networks. In the course of the

trial period, video calls became increasingly common in Sweden among people

who are deaf.

Figure 2.18 Mobile video communications for people who are deaf.

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The positive experiences from the first trial resulted in a new development project

being initiated during the spring of 2005. This was to test a communications and

interpreter service for 3G calls. These services mean that a deaf person can contact

a sign language interpreter who interprets between sign language and speech. In

this way, a deaf person can communicate directly with a hearing person. This may,

for instance, involve distance interpretation, for example, when visiting the bank or

during a spontaneous meeting. It may also involve a communicated call, for

example, when one deaf person wishes to make a call to a hearing person or vice

versa. In this way the deaf person becomes less dependent upon physical access

to interpreter resources and the need to book such services well in advance, which

creates opportunities for more spontaneous communication.

The new project aimed to develop both technology and methodology for receiving

and dealing with 3G calls at an interpreter centre. The project is now finalised and

the functionality is since September 2006 integrated in the service provided by the

Relay service for video telephony operated by Tolkcentralen in Örebro Läns

Landsting (the Örebro County Council Interpreter Centre).

Facts

Technology

3G technology and telephones with video functionality.

Target group

People who are deaf and hearing-impaired persons who use sign language as

their first language.

Number of users

Approximately 100

Project period

April 2005 – February 2006.

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Conclusion

Broadband communications have demonstrated that they can play an important

role in providing vital services to people with special needs for communication. The

technology is mature enough to provide advanced services and it is reasonable to

expect that such services will become more widely available as long as

organizational and economical aspects can be solved.

References

PTS (2005). Mobile video communications for people who are deaf.

http://www.pts.se/Dokument/dokument.asp?Sectionid=&Itemid=3745&Language

id=EN.

PTS (2004). Broad band for people with disability.

http://www.pts.se/Dokument/dokument.asp?Sectionid=&Itemid=4615&Language

id=EN.

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2.3.2 Access to video relay services through the Pocket

Interpreter (3G) and Internet (IP)

Patrik Bystedt

Background

The National Post and Telecom Agency (Post- och telestyrelsen, PTS) is the

authority that monitors the electronic communications and postal sectors in

Sweden. PTS has according to governmental regulations and decisions, an

assignment to, through procurement, ensure that the special needs of people with

disabilities are satisfied. The Government grants an allowance for this purpose

every year to PTS.

PTS procures a number of electronic communications and postal services.

Furthermore PTS continuously initiates projects with the aim to test new

technologies and new functionality that could support different groups of disabled

people.

The technological development and rapid growth of fixed and mobile broadband

networks creates new possibilities for people with disabilities. There are two

significant trends that PTS has recognized. The first is that more and more services

are based on the IP protocol. The second is an increasing demand for services to

be mobile. A recent survey in Sweden shows that practically everyone in Sweden

has a mobile telephone, senior citizens is the only group where accessibility to

mobile telephones is less than 90 %.

The relay service for video telephony has been available in Sweden since 1997. It

is primarily used for relaying telephone calls between a deaf person using sign

language and a talking person. During the first years, the service was only offered

to sign language users via the ISDN network. Since the ISDN network is not widely

spread and communication is quite expensive, the number of users was limited.

ISDN is no longer a promoted service in Sweden and the number of subscriptions

will decline. Today video calls via IP based video and 3G telephones are more used.

There is therefore a need to develop the relay service for video telephony to meet

the new communication need and trends. Since 2003 PTS has initiated two

different development projects, the IP access project and the pocket interpreter.

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The IP access project

PTS started the IP access project in 2003. The overall aim of the project was to

develop the relay service for video telephony and build a new IP platform that

could handle calls to and from different types of video telephones. The IP access

project was concluded in August 2006.

Before the incoming calls to the service were handled in different studios at the

interpreter centre depending on the video telephone. If the user called from an

ISDN telephone the interpreter would go to the ISDN studio and if the user called

from an IP based video telephone the interpreter would go instead to the IP studio.

This was not an ideal situation and certainly not a scalable solution.

In February 2006 the new IP platform was put into use. Today all incoming calls

are handled on the same platform, with the same service quality measures. The

studios connected to the service are no longer dedicated to a certain type of video

telephone. Another aim of the project was to allow access to the service through

a web client. A user with a computer, web camera and a broadband connection

can download software for video telephony. This means that the user becomes less

dependant on the specific video telephone.

With the new IP platform, a call centre solution has been initiated. Collaborating

interpreter centres or companies can now connect their studios to the service and

supply interpreter services. The incoming calls are distributed through an automatic

call distribution (ACD) mechanism. This gives the relay service flexibility and ability

to grow. The dependency on certain interpreter centres and geography is also

minimized.

Figure 2.19 describes how the service looks like today with more accessibility for

the user (left hand side) and a more flexible and scalable solution with

collaborating suppliers of interpreter services (right hand side).

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Figure 2.19 Overview of the Relay service for video telephony in Sweden.

The pocket interpreter

In 2004 PTS initiated a trial project called Mobile video communication for people

who are deaf. One of the services tested in the trial was distance interpretation and

relay of mobile video calls. This mobile application of interpretation services has,

among users, been referred to as “the pocket interpreter”. The use of 3G is rather

extensive among people who are deaf. According to Sveriges Dövas Riksförbund

(the Swedish National Association for the deaf) an estimated 4 000 to 6 000

people who are deaf use a 3G telephone, which would represent approximately

half of the number of people who are born deaf in Sweden. The conclusion of this

trial project was that there is a great demand for this service and there are many

potential users of the service.

In order to meet this demand PTS started the development project, the Pocket

interpreter, in April 2005. The main objective of the project was to develop

methodology and technology for distance interpreting and mediation of mobile

video calls (3G) to the new IP platform.

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Figure 2.20 The pocket interpreter, distance interpretation via a 3G telephone.

One of the major efforts in the project was to improve the interpreter situation.

When the project started the interpreter used the same equipment as in the trial

Mobile video communication for people who are deaf. This was an ordinary 3G

telephone and the interpreter sat in a specific 3G studio at the interpreter centre.

Since February 2006, when the new IP platform was put into operation, mobile

video calls were handled in the same platform and in the same manner as any

other call to the service. The specific solution and studio is not used anymore.

Figure 2.21 The interpreter studio – from a modified 3G telephone to a

multifunctional IP platform.

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The number of 3G users in the project was initially limited to 100. In May 2006

new functionality was implemented in the platform so that incoming 3G calls could

be distributed through the ACD. This means that more studios can handle incoming

3G calls and that the number of 3G users can increase.

There has been a lot of interest shown in the project and the Pocket interpreter has

been demonstrated frequently, for example at the World Summit on Information

Society (WSIS) in Tunis in November 2005. The project has also competed in the

Stockholm Challenge Award.

The project was concluded in August 2006, but the Pocket interpreter, the mobile

access to the relay service for video telephony, lives on.

Conclusion

The development project was finished by the end of August 2006. As a result of

these projects, users can now call the video relay service using their 3G telephone,

IP based video telephone or web client as well as their traditional ISDN video

telephone. The future of the video relay service is that both the service and the user

will be less dependant on the specific video telephone. The service will become

much more flexible. The number of video calls from mobile telephones and

computers connected to Internet is expected to grow rapidly and will create

demand on the service resources. The new service platform allows interpreter

companies to collaborate as sub contractors which means that more interpreters

can handle incoming calls, regardless of geographic location. The future will

probably see more of these joint ventures to create national services.

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2.3.3 Convenient invocation of relay services

Robert Hecht

Introduction

The term relay service refers here to a service that allows people with a disability

to use the telephone, when normally they could not, through the use of an

operator. Today these three types of relay service are in common use in Sweden

and other countries:

• Video telephone relay services: telecommunications services that enable deaf

video telephone signers and voice telephone users to interact

• Text telephone relay services: telecommunications services that enable text

telephone users and voice telephone users to interact by providing

conversion between the two modes of communication in substantially real

time

• Speech-to-speech relay services: telecommunications services that enable

speech impaired telephone users and other users to interact by providing

skilled assistance between them.

These relay services are very good and important for translation between various

means of communication. They thereby contribute towards ensuring equal

opportunities for telecommunications for people with disabilities. F u r t h e r

variations of relay services can be created through new combinations of media and

language in the calls.

To call through a relay service is currently a two-step process. First a person calls

the service and explains who they really want to call. The relay service then

connects and performs the relaying action.

The methods for invoking the relay service for a call can be improved so that the

relay service can contribute more effectively to equal opportunities for

communication. There are methods to arrange the convenient invocation of relay

services that are listed below.

Needs and functional description of connection cases

In the illustrations, a picture of a text telephone that has a call through the Relay

Service for Text Telephony is usually used, but the cases also apply to video

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2.3.

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telephony through the Relay Service for Video Telephony and voice telephony

through the speech-to-speech relay service (Teletal in Sweden).

The descriptions provide reasons for why the connection cases would simplify the

relay services for the user.

Direct dialling to relay service users

Of all calls to the relay services, 85% are initiated by relay service users. Voice

phone users rarely call to relay service users. One reason for this is that it is too

complicated for a voice telephone user to call to a relay service user. It is also too

complicated to describe how to do it.

One solution is to be able to use a voice telephone number to the relay service user

that automatically connects the call from the voice telephone user through the

relay service to the relay service user.

This leads to equal opportunities for communication and reduces unequal

treatment of people with disabilities. An illustration is shown below of how such a

call between a voice telephone and a text telephone could be performed.

Figure 2.22. The voice telephone user rings a direct number to a relay service user with a

text telephone. The relay service for text telephony is automatically invoked.

Direct dialling to voice telephone users

Today the relay service user first calls the relay service and requests that they

arrange for the call to be connected to the destination. This is sometimes perceived

to be an inconvenient and time-consuming process. It also makes it more difficult

to benefit from electronic telephone directories.

In order to simplify management of dialled calls to voice phone users, a function is

needed that allows the relay service user to dial the destination’s number, and

allow the call to invoke the relay service and connect the destination.

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An illustration is shown below of how such a call between a text telephone and a

voice phone could be performed.

Figure 2.23. The relay service user’s call from a textphone to a voice phone goes

automatically through the Relay Service for Text Telephony.

Forwarding voice calls so that they are connected

via the relay service

For relay service users, it may be very frustrating to be alone in premises where

there is a voice telephone. When someone calls to the voice telephone, the relay

service user must be able to get the call connected via the relay service.

When the relay service user realises that no one can receive a voice call for a

period, then the relay service user should, by a simple action, be able to request

call forwarding via the relay service of incoming voice calls. This may mean that the

call, after having been connected through the relay service, also goes to another

terminal that can deal with the media that the user wishes to use.

Today it is usual for a voice telephone and a text telephone to be on the same

number and telephone connection. For users who wish to retain this form of

connection, it is desirable to have a call forwarding that has the effect that only

incoming voice calls go through the relay service, while text calls are dealt with

directly.

An illustration is shown below of how a connection from a voice telephone to a

text telephone via the Swedish Relay Service for Text Telephony is performed, when

the voice telephone is forwarded to the relay service user via the relay service.

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Figure 2.24.

a. The relay service user by a simple action requests connection on the voice phone of an

incoming call via the Relay Service for Text Telephony.

b. An incoming call is connected to the relay service user’s text telephone via the Relay

Service for Text Telephony.

Transferring an incoming voice call so that it is connected

via the relay service

It is very frustrating for relay service users when a voice phone rings when at that

particular time there is no hearing person in the vicinity who can answer.

It is desirable to have a function that by a simple action allows the relay service

user to request that the incoming call to be transferred to him/her via the relay

service.

Today it is usual for a voice telephone and a text telephone to be on the same

number and telephone connection. For users who wish to retain this form of

connection, it is desirable that the transfer can be made selectively so that only

incoming voice calls go through the relay service, while text calls are dealt with

directly. It is also desirable that calls, after connection through the relay service, can

revert to text calls on the same number.

An illustration is shown below of how a transfer of an incoming voice call via the

Relay Service for Text Telephony to a text telephone could be performed.

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Figure 2.25.

a. An incoming call to a voice telephone cannot be answered by the relay service user.

b. The relay service user requests connection via the Relay Service for Text Telephony by a

simple action.

c. The Relay Service for Text Telephony takes the call and calls up the user.

Transferring an ongoing voice call so that it is connected

via the relay service

If one party in an ongoing voice call wishes to hand over the call to a relay service

user, it is not possible today to transfer the call being made as a voice call, but the

call must be ended and either party called up through the relay service’s two-step

process. This is so intricate that users in many cases refrain from transferring the

call, and the call is conducted without the participation of the relay service user.

This often results in inadequate participation and independence for people with

disabilities.

A function that allows voice telephone users to transfer calls to a relay service user

via the relay service is important to avoid these situations. This would make things

much easier for all parties and a significant step towards equality to be able to say

“Please hold and I’ll connect you to Lasse” instead of saying “call 020280020 and

request a connection to lasse.larsson@sip.omnitor.se”.

Today it is usual for a voice telephone and text telephone to be on the same

number and telephone connection. For users who wish to retain this form of

connection, it is desirable that the transfer can be implemented so that the call

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reverts as a text call to the same number after having been connected through the

relay service.

There may also be a need for other similar transfers. It may be a call between two

individuals with disabilities who have a direct conversation in text or sign language

between themselves, and then the need arises to transfer the call to go through

the relay service to a voice telephone user. Another variant is the need to transfer

a call that started with the relay service invoked to go directly between the call

parties or to another relay service user.

Figure 2.26.

a. Two voice phone users are having a conversation.

b. One of the voice phone users requests by a simple action transfer via the Relay Service

for Video Telephony.

c. The other user is then connected to a relay service user via the Relay Service for

Video Telephony.

Conditional invocation and performance

of a relay service

There are many further potential improvements for the methods to invoke the relay

service. Facts about the two call parties and their terminals can provide an

information base for decisions for the relay service to be invoked and how this

should be performed. Such functions can mean that it becomes even simpler for

the users to have access to convenient telecommunications.

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Information that may be desirable to form a basis for such decisions includes, for

instance:

• The capacity of the terminal to deal with various media, such as video, text

and audio

• The user’s preferences as regards medium for his/her communication

• Languages which the parties and the relay service prefer and have a command

of

• Among spoken languages

• Among written languages

• Among sign languages

• Subject areas for calls, so that the relay service can choose staff with the

appropriate competence

• Desires or needs for the performance and kind of relay service, for example

relay services that deal with sign language, text or voice, for simultaneous

speech and text, for typed text voice calls, etc.

• Need to pre-plan the call with the relay service

• Customer relations and account information.

Language: Swedish sign language

Language spoken: Swedish

Medium: total conversation terminal

Medium: telephone

Figure 2.27.

The relay service user has specified ‘Swedish sign language’ and rings to a voice

telephone user who has specified ‘spoken Swedish’. The call is then connected

automatically through the Relay Service for Video Telephony.

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The information that is required as a basis for decisions can be sent with the

connection, stored in the network or stored in a database at the relay service.

Decisions can be made by users, t e r m i n a l s, network components or

communications assistants.

There are many other possibilities with such functions. When a call is connected, a

relay service with adapted qualities may be included in the call. A relay service for

video telephony can, for instance, be invoked between a relay service user who has

been registered for using Swedish sign language and a voice phone user who is

registered to only be able to use Swedish spoken language.

Emergency calls (112, 911 etc.)

Figure 2.28.

a. The relay service user dials 112 for an emergency call on his/her text telephone.

b. The Emergency Centre or the relay service user requests assistance from the Relay

Service for Text Telephony which is invoked for the call.

It is a tradition in Sweden that everybody, also people with disabilities, should be

able to call 112 for emergency calls. This is an important principle, which avoids

having to learn different numbers for different ways of making emergency calls.

Nonetheless, it may with an emergency call be very valuable to be supported by a

relay service that can deal with sign language, text or voice.

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It may occur with such calls that the party calling and the relay service have

common media that cannot be presented in the Emergency Centres (known as

‘SOS Centres’ in Sweden), but translated to and from speech by the relay service.

This primarily applies to sign language in a video channel. It is necessary to

determine which cases it would be reasonable to perform in this way.

It is necessary to be able to invoke a relay service in a convenient way into an

emergency call on the initiative of the relay service user or of the Emergency

Centre.

Invocation of relay service in two steps

In order to make the description of the connection cases complete, a description is

provided here of the two-step method. This is currently the most usual method of

invoking a relay service for a call. This method should be retained even when more

convenient methods have been introduced, as it provides good opportunities to

discuss the service performance without first having to provide any destination

address.

The relay service’s own address is only used to connect a call between the party

calling and the relay service. In calls with the relay service, the calling party states

the address that is to be called up, following which the relay service connects to

the address, and relays the call between the parties. The initiative for the

connection can be taken by either of the parties.

Figure 2.29.

The voice telephone user rings the number to a relay service.

In calls with the relay service, the number is transferred on a text telephone.

The relay service rings the text telephone and relays the call.

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Connection of ordered relayed call

One method of getting a relay service for a call is to order the call. This possibility

is available today, and is included here only to make the analysis complete.

An order can, for example, be placed for a call at a specified time. The relay service

receives an order to perform a relayed call at a particular time. The service then

makes calls to both parties and relays the call between them.

Figure 2.30.

The relay service receives an order to perform a relay.

The relay service calls a text telephone user and a voice telephone user.

When both calls are connected, the relay can be performed.

The described call cases can be implemented in various network environments.

One key component is to have a mechanism that takes a call to a specific number

to the user through the relay service. Most other call cases can be implemented by

adding various supplementary services to that basic solution.

One smooth way of developing the solutions is to use the ENUM-mechanisms for

translating telephone numbers to SIP-addresses and use VoIP and IP Multimedia

technologies for routing the calls.

A report from the project initiated by the National Post and Telecom Agency in

Sweden (Post- och telestyrelsen, PTS) gives details on implementation

opportunities in various network technologies and relay services [PTS, 2006].

References

PTS (2006). “Convenient invocation of Relay Services - A pre-study conducted by

Omnitor, commissioned by the PTS - PTS-ER-2006:5”.

http://www.pts.se/Dokument/dokumentlista.asp?SectionId=2884.

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2.3.4 Ways of using mobile telephones by people with

dementia

Erland Winterberg

Dementia conditions

Dementia is the name of a number of symptoms of malfunctions in the brain. There

are several forms of dementia; the most frequent is Alzheimer’s disease. Other

causes of dementia are blood clots and brain haemorrhages, Parkinson’s disease,

alcohol abuse, etc.

Some forms of dementia can be cured, medicine can delay the development of

certain forms, but in the majority of cases, the illness worsens during the course of

a few years.

Dementia shows itself primarily with failing memory and reduced ability to function

in day-to-day life. Problems with concentration, arithmetical skills, sense of locality

and language appear as well. Dementia develops gradually into serious problems

of managing daily life. In the concluding phase, the majority of dementia sufferers

will completely lose the ability to live in their own homes and must live in a nursing

home.

In Western Europe and North America the number of people with dementia is

expected to increase due to the rising life expectancy. The older you are, the greater

the risk of developing dementia.

In Denmark, which has a population of approx. 5.5 million, there are approx.

40 000 persons with medium to severe dementia. The annual costs today of

dementia in Denmark are estimated to be approx. 2.3 billion euro.

Due to the population’s rising life expectancy, it is expected that society’s costs for

dementia will increase markedly in coming years.

Mobile technologies

At the moment, there are a number of mobile technologies that are relevant in

relation to being able to offer solutions that can help people with early-stage

dementia to live longer in their own homes in a dignified manner:

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1. Mobile communication with the help of GSM has the affect that the user with

aphasia outside the home can come into contact with relatives and care personnel

and vice versa, either via verbal communication or by text or symbol

communication.

2. Positioning with the help of GPS positioning equipment can inform the user, the

relative or care personnel about the user’s position.

3. Various applications are realised on an SMS server which the user, relatives or

care personnel have access to and which offers various services.

A number of the solutions which are used today in connection with people with

dementia are also used by the transport and security sector and by ordinary

consumers. This entails that the prices of equipment and services are often

favourable.

What problems can be solved or limited by using

mobile technologies?

With the help of mobile technologies, different solutions and services are

developed which are relevant in relation to providing help to the user with

dementia to function more independently and with greater safety:

1. Help to structure daily life for people with dementia:

(daily plan, reminder, feedback)

2. Help to find his/her way around

3. Remote vocal communication when the need arises

4. Finding and tracking a user

5. Alarm/reminder when a specific geographic area is vacated

6. Combinations of points 1 - 5.

The users’ needs

1. Many users with early-stage dementia need help and support to live a good and

dignified life in their own residences. With the right support it will be possible to

extend the time the user can remain living in his/her own residence.

2 . Spouses and relatives need relief and to reduce their uncertainty and

nervousness due to the family member with dementia.

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3. Personnel at nursing homes need a tool, which, with a minimum amount of

effort, makes them able to ensure that the demented patient does not disappear

or have an accident.

Examples of solutions and products

1. Thought, structure and memory support

Comai (www.comai.se) is a new product developed in Sweden that can function

on Symbian-based mobile telephones. The system helps the user structure his

everyday life by giving the user a reminder about things that must be done (take

medicine, get up, do shopping, etc.). The reminder is shown on the mobile

telephone with a picture, text and sound. It can be individually set if the user must

acknowledge after the activity has been completed or begun, and an alarm can be

sent to relatives if the system does not receive the acknowledgement.

Via a website, the user can alone or together with a relative, organise activities in

the system’s calendar which is placed on an SMS server.

In technical terms, the system comprises an SMS server which communicates with

the connected mobile telephones. The messages are managed between the SMS

server connected to the Internet via a computer and the mobile telephone in a

two-way communication.

The mobile telephone can at any time be used in the usual manner.

2. Help to find the way

X-road Navigator (www.x-road.com) is a user-friendly GPS navigation system,

which functions on hand-held units (PDA or navigation unit) in combination with

the unit’s integrated GPS receiver or an external cable, Compact Flash, SD or

Bluetooth GPS receiver. The unit with X-road Navigator can be fitted in the car for

navigation whilst driving, but it can also be used outside of the car as a digital map

or as a hand-held navigator. If one is a pedestrian or a cyclist, the system takes

pedestrian and one-way streets into account and shows the nearest pedestrian

and bicycle routes.

Furthermore, X-road Navigator provides the option of receiving a position from

another person via a text message. The function is only available if you have a

PPCPE unit (Pocket PC Phone Edition).

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To be able to transmit a position, the sender must also have a PPCPE unit, which

runs X-road Navigator. The text message will contain a position to which you can

navigate.

Beforehand, the user or a relative can code in the address of the place the user is

to visit. With the help of the map and directions on this as well as synthetic vocals

it can guide the user to the destination. A new address can be sent via the

navigator.

3. Vocal communication when the need arises

Many persons with early-stage dementia will feel secure by having the possibility

of talking with relatives and possibly asking for help when they are outside of the

home. The relatives will be given better opportunity to support the user and at the

same time be able to carry out the daily tasks unhindered.

Many people with dementia in the early stages of the illness can benefit well from

normal mobile telephones.

Many will gradually have difficulty in managing and operating ordinary mobile

telephones.

Soneco CC (www.soneco.fi ) is a specially designed GSM mobile telephone, which

is very simple to operate for persons who have reduced cognitive functions,

including people with dementia.

The user interface of the telephone comprises only one button and three lamps

with different colours. The three lamps represent three pre-programmed numbers

which the user can remember with the help of the colour. Calls and the answering

of calls are done by pushing the button.

Another option is to use Philiphone 4 (www.bertlandpihl.se), which is fitted with

only 4 large buttons that can be marked with either a name or a picture of the

person who has the pre-programmed number. Calls to the telephone are answered

by pushing one of the 4 buttons.

The telephone comprises an ordinary standard telephone of the type Sony Ericsson

T290, Sony Ericsson K300i as well as some older Sony Ericsson models which are

fitted into a special cover and connected to the 4 buttons.

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4. Find and track user

Today there are a number of units from various manufacturers that are able to

track and find the position of a person carrying the equipment concerned. There is

a GSM modem and a GPS receiver built into the unit.

The equipment’s position can, at any time, be notified by sending an enquiry – from

a mobile telephone – about the equipment’s position via a special SMS server.

After a few seconds, the equipment’s exact position, street name, house number,

etc. is received or the distance and direction from the nearest address.

The position can also be notified by connecting to the system’s website and

enquiring on the position of a given unit. After a few seconds, a section of a map

is shown with information about position and appurtenant address.

Furthermore, the equipment can be supplied with an emergency button. If the

button is activated, relatives or personnel will immediately be informed and

notified of the equipment’s position and address.

Micro-Tracker (WWW.safelink.dk) is an example of such equipment.

Some of the equipment can combine the tracking function with two-way GSM

communication.

Over and above a pre-programmed emergency number, Safelink s-911

(www.safelink.dk) has two call-up buttons for pre-programmed numbers.

There is also equipment that contains automatic alarm functions which entails an

alarm being sent if the equipment is positioned horizontally for a longer period. In

this way, a fall for example can be registered so that the situation can be dealt with

immediately.

Lommy (www.lommy.com) is an example of such equipment.

5. Alarm/reminder when a specific geographic area is vacated

It is often appropriate if the user can freely move about within a given area. This

could be a nursing home and its surroundings or a local area known to the user

(neighbourhood). If the user leaves this area, it is necessary for an alarm to be sent

to the nursing home personnel or relatives.

The SMS server from Safelink (www.safelink.dk) contains the option of setting up

a “fence” on a selected map in the system. If the user of a given unit moves

outside the specified “fence”, an alarm is set off.

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Research

The utilisation of mobile technologies to help people with dementia is relatively

new. This means that only very few validations have been conducted of the

utilisation value of the new solution.

However, experience that has been gained until now shows that the users, the

relatives and nursing home personnel are very satisfied with the new possibilities

that are made available and the utilisation is gaining ground.

It will however, be necessary – through further research – to clarify in more detail

how the new solutions must be used and how they have the greatest value in

relation to alternative solutions. In this way a greater certainty is achieved that the

solutions suit the users’ needs, are ethically responsible and have a reasonable

economy in relation to alternative solutions.

It is expected that in line with the development of new generations of mobile

services and terminals with strongly increased data transmissions and data

processing capacity, it will be possible to develop new equipment and services that

can further support people with dementia in living a good life and reducing the

costs for care in the future.

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2.3.5 Implementation of an SMS-based

emergency service in Finland

FICORA-Working group for emergency communications

Drawn from report, published by FICORA

This section is drawn from the FICORA Working Group report for emergency

communications, a full version of which can be found at [FICORA, 2005]. It

describes a system where the universal emergency number 112 is easily and

reliably accessible also by means of a text message within the technical restrictions

of the service. The system is intended for users with a disability (such as people

with a hearing impairment), but it may be useful for anyone in an emergency

situation. In this system all 112 emergency text messages are routed to one

c e n t ralised answering point. The centralised answering point sends an

acknowledgement message and locates the mobile telephone by means of the

positioning system for emergency calls. The emergency response centre appointed

as the centralised answering point may deliver the 112 emergency text message

or corresponding information to the nearest emergency response centre on the

basis of the location data.

2.3.5.1. Foreword

The directives on electronic communications, which in Finland have been

implemented through the Communications Market Act, include a requirement that

people with a disability must have access to emergency services equivalent to that

enjoyed by other users. This is also one of the key topics of the European Union’s

INCOM1 working group. The Finnish strategy for accessible communications, which

has been through public consultation, contains several recommendations, one of

which was to adopt an SMS-based service for the emergency number 112 by the

end of 2005.

An SMS-based service for 112 is not a new issue as it has already been one of the

targets of the Ministry of the Interior for the last decade. Until now, deaf and hard

of hearing people have been able to make emergency calls by means of text

telephones and by sending text messages to separate mobile telephones placed

with the individual emergency response centres. The numbers for these mobile

telephones were only given to those requiring the service among users with a

d i s a b i l i t y. From 2002, the Emergency Response Centre A d m i n i s t ration has

prepared the transition to a national emergency response service based on text

messages. In this system, planned to be introduced in 2007, the general emergency

1 INCOM stands for Inclusive Communications.

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number 112 is easily and reliably accessible also by text messages. The service is

expected to help all people in emergency situations, not only users with a disability.

The 112 short message number was reserved for emergency purposes in the short

message numbering scheme of the Finnish Communications Regulatory Authority

(FICORA) some time ago. Also, barring of calls to the general emergency number

112 is prohibited through FICORA’s regulations. SMS to 112 required some

adjustments to the regulations.

2.3.5.2. SMS-based emergency services elsewhere in Europe and the

development of standards

There are no European standards for emergency text messages. The propositions of

this report are based on the normal SMS-based service. For solutions exceeding the

presented basic solution it is important to follow corresponding projects in other

countries as well as the development of standards.

Since 2003 the National Post and Telecom Agency in Sweden (Post- och

telestyrelsen, PTS) and the operator of the emergency service in Sweden (SOS

Alarm Sverige) have evaluated emergency alarms to 112 via SMS in a study and

trial project. Since October 2006 the possibility to send SMS to the emergency

number 112 has been launched as a service during a two year period and it is

available for people with disabilities.

2.3.5.3. Practical implementation of a SMS-based emergency service

in Finland

Basic solution

If emergency text messages were always routed directly to the nearest emergency

response centre, short message service centres and possibly also other network

elements would require additional functionalities. Therefore, direct routing does

not seem to be a technically and economically feasible solution. Instead, it seems

that the best way to handle 112 emergency text messages is to route all messages

to one specified answering point where the calling mobile telephone is located by

means of the positioning system for emergency calls. The emergency response

centre, which is to be determined later as being the answering point, then submits

the emergency text message or corresponding information to the emergency

response centre nearest to the sender on the basis of location data.

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Figure 2.31. Basic solution for the SMS-based emergency service

1. Transfer of the 112 emergency text message to the centralised answering point.

2. Acknowledgement message from the answering point.

3. Location of the sender.

4. Transmission of data to the emergency rersponse centre nearest to the sender.

x. Posible text message conversation between the emergency response centre and the

sender (may take place in two phases).

The Emergency Response Centre Administration will designate the centralised

answering point. This centralised model may be adopted, provided that the

answering delay will not be too long. It is possible to keep the answering delay at

a moderate level, when the first acknowledgement message is sent from the

centralised answering point as soon as the sender of the emergency message is

located. The new positioning system for emergency calls adopted at the beginning

of 2005 will enable the location to be identified. To keep the delays short, it is

appropriate to integrate the reception of 112 emergency messages and other

related activities into the general emergency centre system. The situation can be

further clarified through a text message conversation between the centralised

answering point and the person needing emergency help. From the centralised

answering point the emergency text message or related information can be

transmitted to the emergency response centre nearest to the person needing

emergency help. For the conversation between the nearest emergency response

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centre the person needing emergency help, some other number than 112 must be

transmitted in the answering message from the nearest emergency response

centre.

Restrictions in the SMS-based emergency service

Common restrictions or problems that may occur in the SMS-based emergency

service are described below.

The normal SMS-based service may be unreliable and slow:

• Text messages are transmitted via the network rather reliably, operators

estimate that reliability exceeds 99%

• Also when a message is not transmitted to the receiver, the reason for this is

usually found in the terminal equipment

• Operators estimate that the average delay for text messages is 2 seconds,

thus problems may occur in some special situations, such as mass voting.

Text messages to 112 are barred in the cases described below:

• Barring of All Outgoing Calls (BAOC) is activated. It bars not only calls but

also text messages. The subscriber can activate this function on his or her

telephone

• Barring of All Incoming Calls (BAIC) is activated. It bars not only calls but also

text messages (this means that it is not possible to receive the

acknowledgement message from the centralised answering point). The

subscriber can activate this function on his or her telephone

• Operator Determined Barring of Outgoing Calls (OBO) is activated. It bars

also text messages. The service operator may activate this function, for

instance, when the limit for the call balance is reached2

• The limit for the prepaid account balance is reached (note: some operators

support free-of-charge SMS services, which means that also the SMS-based

emergency service may be free and the service may be used although there

is no balance for the prepaid account)

• The SIM card is missing

• The caller is in a shadow region of his or her own operator’s network

2 FICORA Regulation number 35 on barring categories in telecommunications contains the following point: "Traffic to the general emergency number 112, emergency number for the police 10022 and the operator’s number for fault reports shall not be barred with any category". This applies also to text messages.

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• All radio channels are busy in connection with mass events.

Foreign roaming customers cannot use the service as text messages are routed to

the short message service centre of these customers’ home network.

Malicious messages are possible.

Tracing malicious messages becomes easier as the emergency response centre can

see the number of the sending mobile telephone and locate the mobile telephone

of the person needing emergency help.

Malicious messages are, however, not regarded as a serious problem for the

emergency response centre when they are sent via the Internet, anonymously or

with a fault calling line number, as such sending is only possible towards a mobile

telephone.

Working group’s proposal for solution

The working group suggests that the SMS-based 112 emergency service be

implemented according to figure 2.32. If the text message conversation is also

implemented between the sender of the emergency text message and the nearest

emergency response centre, the implementation takes place according to figure

2.33.

Figure 2.32. Implementation of the SMS-based 112 emergency service (possible text

message conversation only from the centralised answering point).

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1. Transfer of the 112 message to the centralised answering point.

2. Acknowledgement message from the answering point.

3. Location of sender.

4. Transmission of data to the emergency response centre nearest to sender.

5. Possible text message conversation between the duty officer at the answering point

and the sender.

Figure 2.33. Implementation of the SMS-based 112 emergency service (possible text

message conversation also from the nearest emergency response centre).

1. Transfer of the 112 text message to the centralised answering point.

2. Acknowledgement message from the answering point.

3. Location of sender.

4. Transmission of data to the emergency response centre nearest to sender.

5. Possible text message conversation between the duty officer at the answering point

and the sender.

6. Possible text message conversation between the nearest emergency response centre

and the sender.

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2.3.5.4 Costs for the provision of emergency text messages and call

itemization

Users can send emergency text messages to 112 free of charge and text messages

to 112 must not be included in the call itemization of a bill. These requirements are

based on section 55 of the Communications Market Act (393/2003), which states

that users must be able to access the universal emergency call number 112 free of

charge. According to the preamble to the Act, this means calling an emergency

number or, for instance, sending a text message to an emergency number, if it is

technically possible, or some other technical way to connect an emergency number

which may be provided in the future. According to section 24 of the Act on the

Protection of Privacy in Electronic Communications (516/2004), a call itemization

for a subscriber connection may not contain identification data for services for

which no fee is charged.

The acknowledgement message of an emergency text message can be compared

to call back, which in some cases is used in connection with a normal emergency

call. This call-back is a normal call for which a fee is charged, and therefore also

the acknowledgement message is a normal chargeable text message.

In a text message conversation, messages sent to 112xx by the person needing

help are also emergency text messages for which no fee is charged. In a text

message conversation, the emergency response centre’s messages to a normal

subscriber number are text messages for which a normal fee is charged.

According to FICORA’s interpretation, the emergency response centre does not pay

compensation to operators for those 112-calls which are cost-free for users. The

same principle applies to 112 emergency text messages.

The emergency text messages are routed from each operator’s short message

service centre directly to the emergency response centres’ centralised answering

point, which means that there will be no inter-operator text message fees. If,

however, such costs should occur, the operators must mutually agree upon them.

2.3.5.5 Implementation and maintenance costs

Costs for the implementation and maintenance of the SMS-based emergency

service are mainly composed of four parts:

1. changes that operators must make for routing 112 text messages to short

message service centres – the working group sees that these costs form a

part of the normal operation costs and do not cause any additional costs

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2. transmission connections from short message service centres to the

centralised answering point. The aim is to use existing (IP) connections

between the emergency response centres and the operators, but costs may

occur for VPN specifications; if there are no usable connections they must be

acquired

3. acquirement and maintenance of receiving interface and/or adaptor at the

emergency response centre (update as necessary, probably not very

frequently)

4. personnel costs at the emergency response centres (training, etc.).

Items 1 and 2 involve costs which may be compensated to operators. As stated

above, item 1 does not cause any costs. Item 2 causes some costs which, however,

can be defined more precisely

after the Emergency Response Centre Administration decides which transmission

connections are adopted and selects the centralised answering point.

Costs incurred of items 3 and 4 are emergency response centres’ own costs and

the Emergency Response Centre Administration is the most aware of these costs.

Costs for item 3 depend on the solution decided by the Emergency Response

Centre Administration (interface software as part of the emergency response

centres’ own system / separate adaptor).

2.3.5.6 Implementation schedule

The first phase includes: transmission of the 112 emergency text message to the

centralised answering point, acknowledgement of the emergency text message,

location of the mobile telephone, and transfer of information to the nearest

emergency response centre, where necessary. For text message conversation, the

schedule is open and a more precise schedule can be done only after the first

phase has been put into practice.

From the operators’ point of view, the implementation in this time frame was

regarded as realistic at the time this report was published. Question about the

interface/adaptor implementation requires fast decision-making on the technical

details at the Emergency Response Centre Administration.

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2.3.5.7 Further development

The first-phase implementation contains some restrictions and problems, but some

of them may be abolished in the longer term. Some of the restrictions and

problems require that amendments are made to international standards or other

international agreements. FICORA’s working group for emergency communications

follows the international development both in standardisation and in other

countries’ solutions (e.g. Sweden) and contributes to international development as

necessary.

The following list contains those restrictions and problems that have been

discovered for the first phase:

• reliability and delays of 112 text messages

• effect of barrings on 112 text messages

• other reasons that prevent the sending of 112 text messages.

routing of 112 text messages in special cases (foreign roaming customers in

Finland – the messages are routed to short message service centres of these

customers’ home networks; Finnish roaming customers abroad – the messages are

routed to short message service centres of these customers’ home networks and

from there to the centralised answering point in case of those operators that take

part in the SMS-based emergency service);

service operators who provide short message services to Finnish customers but

whose short message service centre is located abroad and who do not want to join

the system (such cases are not known for the time being, but may occur in the

future) dimensioning/expansion of the system in case of a dramatic increase in the

use.

2.3.5.8 References

FICORA, (2005). Implementation of an SMS-Based emergency service in Finland

ficora.fi/englanti/document/WGReport022005.pdf.

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2.4 Evolution of text telephony

2.4.1 The recommendations of the Nordic countries

regarding functionality for text telephony

Robert Hecht

Foreword

The following recommendations about the future functionality of text telephony

were compiled by the Nordic Forum for Telecommunication and Disability (NFTH)1

by mandate of the NFTH meeting held in Reykjavik in May 2005 [NFTH, 2005].

Introduction

The next generation of text telephony in the Nordic countries and Europe is under

development. The next generation of text telephony means telephony that is

Internet (IP) based, and also various mobile terminals. The objective is to clarify the

Nordic standpoints, in order to in this way contribute to increased harmonisation

within the area.

The Nordic standpoints concerning traditional text telephony and text

telephony for everybody

Mobility

Text telephony should be opera t o r- n e u t ral and independent of terminal

manufacturer. Mobile text calls should function in 3G, GSM and future terminals.

The terminals that are also in common use now should also be able to cope with

mobile text, i.e. ‘smartphones’ should not be a basic requirement. A smartphone

combines the functionality of a mobile telephone and a laptop computer in one

and the same terminal. It is desirable that terminal manufacturers facilitate the use

of both voice and text channels simultaneously during a call.

1 The Nordic Forum for Telecommunication and Disability (NFTH) is a collaborative body established in 1987 by The Nordic Cooperation on Disability (NSH) under the Nordic Council of Ministers. NFTH is financed by The Nordic Development Centre for Rehabilitation Technology (NUH), which is a subsidiary of the NSH. The purpose of NFTH is to discuss relevant topics in the field of telecommunications that concern disabled persons and to support the Nordic countries’ endeavours to integrate disabled persons into the information society. NFTH does this by making recommendations and guidelines dealing with the current and future problems of the new information society.

http://www.nuh.fi/NFTH_eng.htm

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Internet

Text telephony should be possible through downloaded software or via the

Internet, on computers with the most common operative systems (Windows,

Macintosh, Linux, etc.). Text telephony should be possible from various computers

with Internet access, including Internet cafés. Between computers, it should be

possible to speak and hear simultaneously as text is being used.

Service interoperability

Within the Nordic countries text telephony between computers, common kinds of

mobile terminals and the analogue text telephones that are used within the Nordic

countries, including Speak directly-functionality, should function. Text telephony

should, if possible, also offer interoperability with common ‘Instant Messaging’

(IM) services, such as MSN Messenger and Yahoo, among others.

Service interoperability can be achieved in various ways. It may, for example, relate

to a central ‘gateway’ solution, or the production of a common technical solution.

It should be possible for text telephony to be used through the various networks

that are common and available in various contexts.

Continuous transmission of text

During a text call it should be possible to transmit continuously so that the

conversation is fluent. A text call should be perceived as occurring in real time and

correspond with a voice conversation, where it is possible to interrupt each other

at any time.

When text is sent at approximately one second intervals, the party conversing

senses the fluency mentioned above. Sending text as blocks (‘chat’) is a

supplement, but it does not completely satisfy the need for a text conversation

corresponding to a conversation that speaking persons experience.

Interoperability for text telephony across IP

With analogue text telephony, s e v e ral different standards have emerged.

Interoperability for text telephony via IP should apply within the EU area, and

preferably globally. The ongoing work to achieve interoperability for text telephony

over IP is of great importance.

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Relay services for text telephony

Relay services facilitate calls between persons with hearing, persons who have

speech impairment, deaf persons and deaf-blind persons. These are crucial services

that assist in creating communication between persons with disability and persons

with hearing. Relay services may be either manual or automatic.

It should be possible to connect relay services the easiest way possible. It is

appropriate that the person calling up should not need to know that, for example,

a certain telephone number leads to a hearing or a deaf person and that the call

is automatically diverted via a relay service when this is necessary.

It is also important that relay services for text telephony and relay services for video

telephony use voice/audio and text in the same way, so that interoperability is

achieved to the highest possible degree between text telephones, video telephones

and total conversation units.

References

NFTH, (2005). The recommendations of the Nordic countries regarding

functionality for text telephony. http://www.nuh.fi/NFTH_2-2005.doc

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2.4.2 Mobile and IP–based text telephony

Flexible text communication services in Sweden

Robert Hecht

Rationale

It is estimated that there are around 6 000 – 8 000 sign language users in Sweden

today who use mobile phones for either SMS or video calls. This project opens a

possibility of using the mobile phone for text calls with other mobile telephones,

with Internet users and traditional text telephones.

There are in addition a large number of users in Sweden today who are classified

as post language deafened, who cannot use sign language and who use speech

for outgoing communication. These users cannot at present use the Internet

efficiently, i.e. say what they want to say and receive text instead of speech.

The emergency number 112 and the Text telephone Relay Service in Sweden are

examples of services that can be reached using a mobile text client or a web-based

client.

Mobile IP Technology

This service addresses a clearly emerging need to communicate using text

communication through the mobile, for example when 3G coverage is lacking or it

is impossible to interface in real time with other text telephones or services which

are compatible with legacy text telephones (V.21, EDT, DTMF, Baudot, V.18, etc.) on

the PSTN network, such as emergency services, text relay services, etc.

To complement the mobile communication, a web-based client is used. Both

clients can be downloaded and used from anywhere, such as Internet cafés, office

environment, etc.

The service supplements existing investments in text and image communication,

e.g. for users who do not use 3G telephones or when coverage for image

communication by 3G does not exist or for deaf adults who do not use sign

language.

The service is also operator independent, which is a big advantage with regard to

the user preferences.

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Call traffic

The following calls can be made using the service.

• Mobile text clients to: legacy text telephones, other mobile text clients

and/or web-based clients that use the open standard specified below

• Web clients to: legacy text telephones, other mobile text clients and/or web-

based clients that use the open standard specified below

• Text telephones: to mobile text clients and/or web-based clients that use the

open standard specified below.

Open standard

The mobile data network puts several constraints that make it almost impossible

for P2P communication between mobile devices. That is the reason for that in the

service it was decided to generate a communication model using standard, existing

and allowed protocols.

The solution adopted in the service is to use an application server that relays the

dataflow between mobile terminals, web interfaces and legacy text telephone.

One of the goals of the service is to allow any software or terminal to connect to

the application server and get the possibilities to communicate with mobile

terminals, web interfaces and legacy text telephone.

The protocol used in the mobile terminals is http(s) and XML-RPC schemas1 that

fulfil the recommendation of the ITU-T T-1402. The web interfaces are using the

http(s) protocol and SOAP-XML web protocol3 that enables the service to use the

protocol and thereby avoid the annoying “firewall” problem, as described in SOAP-

XML4.

1 It’s a specification and a set of implementations that allow software running on disparate operating systems, running in different environments to make procedure calls over the Internet.

2 Mobile text telephone: XML mobile text protocol.

3 SOAP is the Simple Object Access Protocol, a way to create widely distributed, complex computing environments that run over the Internet using existing internet infrastructure. SOAP is about applications communicating directly with each other over the Internet in a very rich way.

4 Web text telephone: SOAP XML web protocol.

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Features

Users who utilize text primarily for remote communication will have good and

equal facilities for effectively contacting each other, authorities or relatives and

alarm services which have a text telephone interface.

A number of important features in the service are discussed below.

Client downloaded to mobile phones and/or PCs

To download the software to be used in the mobile phones:

• The mobile client is downloaded from a specific URL Customers that have

downloaded the software can use it from their mobile phones.

Text client for PC:

• The text client is a Java application accessible via a web page.

Communication with text telephones:

• The service or platform has a so called gateway for communication between

text telephony between mobiles, the Internet and text telephones

• The following gateways are in use today: Sweden (V.21), Denmark (V.21),

Germany (V.18 with EDT text telephones).

Mobile users

The mobile test pilots will send and receive text calls with their mobile phones

which support Java functionality as per MIDP 2.0. For incoming calls it is assumed

that the phone vibrates and depending on whether the user is registered in the

system the call will be initiated by two different user procedures. It is possible to

apply existing T9/dictionary functions in the mobile phone when texting.

The service is also operator-independent, which is a big advantage as far as the

users’ preferences are concerned.

Due to limits in the ergonomics of standard mobile phones available in the market

today, a communication block wise (“chat”) has been chosen.

Voice carry over (VCO) feature cannot be used from the mobile phone because

today’s mobile phones cannot use the data channel and the Internet connection at

the same time.

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Internet users

A web-based client is used by users, relatives, authorities and others to send and

receive text calls from PCs connected to the Internet. The user has to be logged

into the platform in order to be reached.

The web-based client is built as an applet and downloaded directly on the PC. This

means that the users always download the latest version of the client.

The Voice carry over (VCO)/Hear carry over (HCO) features will be implemented

during autumn 2006. The text function in the web client is “character by

character”.

In order for it to be possible to be reached by a web-based client the user or the

relative must register in the service.

Text telephone access

Calls from a traditional text telephone to an Internet client and web/mobile client:

• users who have a traditional V.21 phone (the text telephone user) dial a

fixed-line phone number. The call is automatically answered by the service

• the service answers with the following text, e.g. welcome to web service for

text communication. Which phone number do you want to call?

• the text telephone user then writes the phone number (or name) of the

person sought

• the call will then be connected to the Internet client (web or mobile)

• If the Internet client does not answer the call, the text phone user can leave

a message

• the text telephone user pays the current call charge to the service.

During autumn 2006 the service had approximately 100 registered users using the

service on a daily bases. The field trials with users are continuously evaluated.

Conclusions in the final phase of the project will be vital in the decision making

process within the National Post and Telecom Agency (Post- och telestyrelsen, PTS)

of launching this functionality as a public service in Sweden during 2007.

References and further information

www.flexitext.net

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2.4.3 Mobile text telephony based on

GPRS Communications

Santiago Aguilera

Rationale

Text telephones allow deaf people to communicate remotely. However, even if the

advent of text telephony has brought great improvements in remote

communication for deaf people, current text telephony still has some limitations:

• The need for specific terminals with small production volumes, increasing

production costs in comparison to more widely used terminals

• The fact that deaf people have to pay higher telephone bills. This is due to

the fact that to exchange the same amount of information, text

communications require more time than voice conversations. Since the cost

of a call is charged according to its duration, the cost of text calls is higher

than for voice calls

• Text telephones used in many of the different countries are incompatible,

making it very difficult to establish international text telephone calls.

As previously mentioned, deaf people can be economically discriminated against

due to the higher cost of telephone calls. This is due to the fact that the rates to

be paid depend on the connection time and not on the transmitted data. Therefore,

the objective of this project was to create a text telephony system based on GPRS1

(2.5 G) data mobile communications, because GPRS considers for billing purposes,

only the transmitted information. Since the amount of data is very low in text

conversations (and is independent of the duration) the cost of calls will be much

lower.

For the sake of mobility, the terminals used were Personal Digital Assistants (PDA)

with Pocket PC or Palm operative system. The system was designed using Internet

technology (TCP/IP protocol), allowing communication with any kind of terminals

with the TCP/IP protocol, such as mobile telephones or PCs. For PCs a client text

telephone program was implemented. On the other hand, a WAP text telephone

client, able to communicate with the PDA text telephone client, was developed by

the Spanish Vodafone Foundation.

1GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) run over GSM networks and offer the possibility of charging according to the amount of data sent rather than connection time.

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Previous experience

In order to provide deaf people with the advantages of mobile telephony, in 1998

a commercial terminal, the Nokia 9110 (see figure 2.34), was adapted to text

telephony. This programmable terminal was provided with specific compilers and

its own operating system. The developed programs were therefore not portable

[Roe, 2001].

Figure 2.34 Nokia Communicator working as text telephone.

This text telephone was widely accepted among the deaf community. More than

5 000 terminals are currently being used in Spain. It is worth mentioning that this

project was nominated by European Union as an example of good practice in

eliminating communication barriers and of “Design for All”.

Nevertheless, this terminal was not able to solve two specific problems:

• Text conversations take much more time than voice communications. Since

GSM2 telephony billed users according to the length of the call, deaf people

paid much higher bills

• The software designed for text communication was not portable to new

terminals coming on to the market.

Text Telephone Based on GPRS Mobile Communications

The objective was to apply the new technological solutions that have appeared

over the last few years to solve the previously mentioned problems: high cost of

the calls and dependence on the terminal (no portability).

To solve the first issue, an application based on 2.5 mobile generation (2.5 G) was

designed with the possibility of also using GPRS data communication [Andersson,

2001] [Heine & Sagkob, 2003]. This application allows the customer to be billed

2GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is the second generation of mobile phone systems. Invoices are based on connection time.

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only for the amount of information transmitted, which is very low in the case of

text telephony, in comparison to traditional billing based on call duration.

To solve the problem of the dependence on the terminal the application was

programmed in C/C++ for the three different mobile terminal families, which cover

almost 100 % of programmable terminals currently used by the vast majority of

people:

• PDA with Pocket PC [Makofsky, 2003] [Krell, 2002]

• Palm OS [Foster, 2002] [Bachmann, 2002] and

• PC with Windows OS.

Client software

The system has a client/server architecture. The client terminal can be a PDA

(Personal Digital Assistant) or a PC. The software for the client terminal was

designed to allow the user to swap languages. Three languages, Spanish, English

and Portuguese are currently supported. Its main functions are:

• To access GPRS network for connection and obtaining a single IP address for

identification a san IP client on the Internet. This IP address is dynamically

provided by the GPRS network to the different devices connected to it

(figure 2.35)

• To register itself (as a client terminal) in the text telephone server,

communicating the obtained IP address (figure 2.36)

• To allow the user to make a call to other registered terminal

• To inform the user of the calls in the process of being received from other

terminals. For people with hearing difficulties, the indication (event signal) is

visual (blanking the screen terminal) and tactile (activating the vibrator

included in the terminal)

• To register in the user terminal all non answered calls (lost calls)

• The last and most important function is to offer the possibility of real-time

telephone conversation between two users.

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Figure 2.35 PDA connection with GPRS network. Dynamic IP assignation by the GPRS

network. IP is fixed while connection is on.

Figure 2.36 Registration process into the server by a PDA A. This PDA is connected to the

server through the GPRS and Internet networks on a permanent basis (“always-on”) to be

able to access the service at any time.

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Evolution of Text Telephony

Server Software

The server software, running in a remote computer connected to the Internet,

carries out the following functions:

• To allow the registration of the client terminals to be able to communicate

among themselves. This process assumes information is stored in a database

to identify each user: telephone number and IP address assigned by the

GPRS network (figure 2.37)

• To detect the communication request from a caller trying to communicate

with another user. If the called terminal is not registered in the server, the

caller will be warned that no conversation is possible. If the called user is

registered and not busy, he/she will be informed of the caller’s intention to

establish a text conversation with him/her (figure 2.38)

• When a called user accepts an incoming call, and the communication

channel is on, the server drives the information traffic between them (figure

2.39).

Figure 2.37 Call request to the server from a registered PDA A.

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Evolution of Text Telephony

Figure 2.38 Localization of PDA B (call destination) and analysis of its status (no

connected / busy / free) by the PDA A (call origin), through the server.

Figure 2.39 Details of the process in the server during an established conversation

between a PDA A and a PDA B.

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Evaluation

The evaluation phase started at the beginning of 2006. Around 60 PDA terminals

were distributed among deaf users belonging to the Spanish Deaf Organization

Foundation (FCNSE), which was a partner of the project. The objective of the

evaluation was to detect any operational problems that may occur in a large-scale

user trial. Furthermore, new functionalities that may be of interest to add to future

versions of the GPRS text telephone were studied.

The system proved to be very efficient for the following reasons:

• Due to the fact that the billing system is based on data traffic rates, which is

quite low in the case of text conversations between two deaf users.

Furthermore, this form of real-time textual communication is more effective

than SMS conversations

• This solution allows a great variety of different terminals to be used in a

rapidly changing market where new, lower-priced PDA terminals with better

characteristics and functionalities are continuously appearing

• It allows communication with any user who has a PC, without the need for

special terminals.

Additional functions to be considered for the next versions are:

• To allow communication with conventional text telephones connected to the

fixed telephone network, through a gateway that carries out the protocol

translation

• To add functions offered by conventional telephony: voice mail, telephone

agenda, party calls, etc.

This project was developed by the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and the

Universidad Politécnica de Madrid under the direction of Professor Santiago

Aguilera, with the collaboration of the Spanish Deaf Association Foundation. It was

funded by the Spanish Vodafone Foundation. The project was awarded with the

prestigious IMSERSO-Infanta Cristina 2003 grant, given by the Spanish Social and

Labour Ministry.

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References

ANDERSSON, C., (2001). GPRS and 3G Wireless Applications: Professional

Developer's Guide, ISBN: 0471414050, John Wiley & Sons.

BACHMANN, G., (2002). Palm Programming The Authoritative Solution, 2nd

Edition, ISBN: 0-672-3241-X, Sams.

FOSTER, L.R., (2002). Palm OS Programming Bible 2nd Edition. ISBN:

0764549618, John Wiley & Sons.

KRELL, B., (2002). Pocket PC Developer's Guide, ISBN: 0072131500,

Osborne/McGraw-Hill, US.

MAKOFSKY, S., (2003). Pocket PC Network Programming, ISBN 0321133528,

Addison-Wesley Professional.

HEINE, G., SAGKOB, H., (2003) GPRS: Gateway to Third Generation Mobile

Networks. Mobile Communications Series, ISBN: 1580531598, Artech House.

ROE, P.R. W. (Ed.), (2001). Bridging the Gap? Access to telecommunications for

all people. COST 219bis.

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User participation in technology

2.5 User participation in technology

2.5.1 Example of procurement specifications

Functional specification for terminal

procurement in Sweden

Andreas Richter

Procurement of technical aids for electronic communication

The Swedish Handicap Institute (HI) supports the Swedish principals in purchasing

technical aids for people with disabilities. This is done through procurements

resulting in call-off contracts, from which the local health authorities can call off

directly at fixed prices and conditions. HI provides the principals with this service

for many categories of technical aids, among which are text telephones and

videophones. As this text is written, HI has just provided the principals with a call-

off contract for text telephones, videophones and total conversation terminals, i.e.

terminals for communicating with video, text and sound simultaneously. The

procurement started in December 2005 and the contract runs from July 1st 2006

until June 30th 2008.

Qualification of suppliers included, among other parameters, requirements on the

suppliers’ economic stability and ability to provide service to end users.

Requirement specification

Qualification of tenders in the procurement included testing of terminals (text

t e l e p h o n e s, videophones or total conversation terminals) according to the

requirements in R e q u i rement Specification – Total conversation Units, Te x t

telephones and Vi d e o p h o n e s 1 (requirement specification). The requirement

specification was put together by the Swedish Handicap Institute along with Post-

och Telestyrelsen (PTS, the National Post and Telecom Agency in Sweden) and

experts from Tolkcentralen i Örebro, which runs the Swedish video relay service for

deaf and hard-of-hearing persons. The intended terminal user is a hard-of-hearing

person, a deaf person, a speech-impaired person or a relative of either of these.

The requirements listed in the document are functional, in that they are designed

according to the intended user’s needs, not the specifications of terminal

1 Requirement specification – Total conversation units, text telephones and video telephones, Hjälpmedelsinstitutet 2005-09-01, http://www.hi.se/templates/Page____806.aspx.

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equipment occurring on the market. The terminal equipment can thus follow any

standard and any configuration, given that the requirements are fulfilled. It is

assumed that the suppliers and manufacturers find it in their common interest to

assure interoperability in between terminals, since terminal equipment which

cannot be used to communicate with terminals from other manufacturers will not

likely be prescribed.

Two kinds of requests are issued, requirements and guidelines. Terminals have to

meet the requirements in order to qualify for the contract. The guidelines, however,

are looser in that they suggest functionality that a lot of users may wish for but

don’t need for basic communication. The guidelines point out functional aspects

that may become requirements in a later edition of the requirement specification.

Functionality

Requirements on functionality can be divided into several parts, based on

communication method. The following types of requirements can be identified:

• General requirements: applies to text telephones, videophones and total

conversation terminals

• Requirements for video communication, e.g. frame-rate, resolution, blur,

frame delay. These requirements are mainly based on the video quality

needed for sign language

• R e q u i rements for text communication, e.g. definition of the minimum

window of displayed text, possibility to delete characters on own and other

p a rt y ’s screen, maximum delay between input and transmission of characters.

The requirements on video communication are applicable only on videophones and

total conversation terminals and the requirements on text communication are

applicable only on text telephones and total conversation terminals.

General requirements

These are requirements on the terminal’s user interface, instructions for use and

other factors independent on the type of communication.

Some of the most important general requirements are listed below:

• Text on and beside buttons shall be in Swedish

• The supplier shall inform in the product information about the requirements

on computers and supplementary equipment intended to be used with the

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User participation in technology

terminal. Information about appropriate firewalls and routers should also be

provided by the supplier

• The supplier shall provide HI with information about the terminal’s

compatibility with terminals from other suppliers

• Information on how to call “112” (the Swedish emergency number) shall be

available to users or prescribers of terminals

• Two way communication – the call parties shall be able to talk at the same

time with each other

• Secrecy – the user shall be able to turn off the microphone and/or speakers,

and there shall be a visual indication when microphone or speakers are

turned off

• All events indicated with an acoustic signal shall also be indicated with a

visual signal

• Possibility to connect alert system equipment so that the user can be

informed of incoming calls.

Requirements for video communication

The requirements for video communication focus on video quality, temporal effects

and screen and camera quality.

The requirements are, in part, based on the document from the International

Telecommunication Union: ITU- T Series H: Audiovisual and multimedia systems –

Application profile – Sign language and lip-reading real-time conversation using

low bit-rate video communication 2.

The requirements considered to be of most importance for sign language

communication are:

• Audio and video simultaneously

• Frame-rate equal to or above 20 frames per second. This requirement is

necessary for sign language in normal speed

• At least CIF3 resolution, i.e. 352 x 288 pixels

2 Series H: Audiovisual and multimedia systems – Application profile – Sign language and lip-reading real-time conversation using low bit-rate video communication (05/99), International Telecommunication Union

3 Common Intermediate Format. Frame format defined in ITU-T H.261 from the International Telecommunication Union. Each frame consists of 352x288 pixels.

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• Delay of image and sound between two terminals shall not exceed 0.4 s.

This is necessary to avoid calling parties interrupting each other

• Possibility to see own image during call as well as other party’s image

• If the terminal includes camera, the camera angle shall exceed 42°.

General requirements for text communication

The requirements for text communication are mainly based on requirements

inherited from outdated requirement specifications for text telephones4. Even if the

communication network has changed from switched telephone networks to

packet-based data networks, the user’s needs have not changed.

The most important requirements for text communication are:

• Possibility to use ‘speak-directly/listen-directly’, i.e. to alternate between text

mode and voice mode

• Possibility to delete the final character on own and other party’s display

• The delay between input from the sender and presentation at the receiving

end shall not exceed 1 second

• Interoperability with legacy text telephones still in use in Sweden.

Requirements for legacy text telephones

In recent years, there has been a remarkable development in communication

networks and services, and many videophones and total conversation terminals

use IP networks for communication. Fast Internet access is available to the general

population in Sweden, and most deaf people using sign language can use video

telephony to communicate to each other and the video relay service. There is,

however, a group of people who have special needs, in that they cannot sign and

have limited experience of computers and advanced technical equipment. Elderly

people who have become deaf or hard-of-hearing at an age when they have fully

developed speech usually aren’t motivated or have the need to learn sign

l a n g u a g e. For some of these people, the best solution for telephone

communication is the legacy text telephone, since it is usually designed for the sole

purpose of text telephony and hence is simple to use.

The need for legacy text telephones will persist until solutions for IP-based text

telephony with equally simple handling procedures appear.

4 Kravspecifikation – Texttelefoner, Hjälpmedelsinstitutet 2002-03-01

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Requirements on legacy text telephones are:

• Communication compatible with ITU-T V.215

• Text coding in ASCII with Swedish supplement.

Future use of requirements

By forming the requirements out of the user’s needs, they won’t have to be

updated too frequently.

A revised version of the requirement specification was accepted in May 9th 2006

by the Nordic Forum for Telecommunication and Handicap (NFTH) as a set of

guidelines for testing of stationary text telephones, videophones and total

conversation terminals6. NFTH consists of representatives from national

telecommunication agencies, suppliers and national institutes for technical aids for

the disabled in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Iceland an Greenland. By

agreeing to use the same set of requirements for text and video terminals, the

users in the Nordic countries can benefit from each other’s experiences and from

the fact that the suppliers will have a broader market to provide terminals to.

The guidelines from NFTH and the corresponding Swedish requirement

specification are documents which will require updating at a regular interval, since

the pace of product development is very fast.

http://www.hi.se/templates/Page____806.aspx (English version).

The guidelines issued by The Nordic Forum for Telecommunication and Handicap

can be found at www.nuh.fi/nfth.htm.

5 ITU-T V.21 (1988), International Telecommunication Union

6 Guidelines – Total conversation units, text phones and videophones (NFTH 4/2006), http://www.nuh.fi/NFTH_2-2005.pdf 109

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3. Smart home environment

Ilse Bierhoff, Ad van Berlo, Julio Abascal, Bob Allen, Anton Civit, Klaus Fellbaum,

Erkki Kemppainen, Noemi Bitterman, Diamantino Freitas, Kristian Kristiansson

3.1 Introduction

“Improving the quality of life for disabled and the increasing proportion of elderly

people is becoming a more and more essential task for today’s European societies”

[Steg, Strese, Loroff, Hull & Schmidt, 2006], where the percentage of people over

65 years of age is due to rise to 20% by the year 2020 [OECD, 2005]. One way to

improve the quality of life is by making the home environment a more comfortable

place to live in by turning it into a smart home environment.

The terms smart homes, intelligent homes, home networking have been used for

more than a decade to introduce the concept of networking devices and

equipment in the house. According to the Smart Homes Association the best

definition of smart home technology is: the integration of technology and services

through home networking for a better quality of living.

Other terms that are related to smart homes are aware house, changeable home,

attentive house and ambient intelligence. These terms are used to emphasise that

the home environment should be able to respond and modify itself continuously

according to its diverse residents and their changeable needs. For instance ambient

intelligence is defined as a digital environment that is sensitive, adaptive and

responsive to the presence of people [Aarts & Marzano, 2 0 0 3 ] . A m b i e n t

intelligence will encompass the home, car, clothing, work and public places.

Reading this definition one could conclude that ambient intelligence is something

that will happen in the far future. However there are many examples that ambient

intelligence is something that is happening today. For instance cars adjust the

settings of the chair and mirrors to a specific driver and large crowds are analysed

by cameras and intelligent software to detect specific persons. With regard to the

home environment there is a growing amount of digital equipment present in the

home to support the residents. This doesn’t mean that there are always the high-

tech solutions that are present in the homes but also existing low-ke y

technological devices which are readily available can make a contribution. In this

sense smart homes are considered to be a first step in the process of creating a

sensitive, adaptive and responsive home environment.

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From a user perspective it is important to realise that residents consider their home

to be a safe and comfortable place to live in. Sometimes technology is seen as an

intruder in their safe environment, residents are afraid to loose control over their

home. Some people even fear the use of technology in their home. So technology

and the home environment are not naturally a perfect fit. With respect to smart

home technology for elderly and disabled people another aspect is important.

Some solutions are implemented to reduce the need to do things but it is also

important to implement solutions that increase the participation of the resident in

an activity. The goal of equipping the home environment with technology isn’t just

to automate all the tasks that are carried out by the residents. The objective in

design is to provide tools and services that empower and enable people

themselves to address their social, rational, and emotional needs. Equality,

autonomy, and control are the goals of empowering design.

Furthermore technology is not the solution to create a perfect home environment

but has the ability to make a useful contribution. The environment as a whole,

including for instance social contacts and location of the home, is responsible for

the overall satisfaction of the residents.

After this introduction the chapter continues with an overall description of smart

home technology, relevant trends and stakeholders, referred to as the smart home

framework. In the next three sections several aspects of the smart home

environment are described in more detail. Each of these sections uses a different

viewpoint. The viewpoints are: technological, products and services and user

interaction. The sixth section is devoted to realized projects, which are divided in

projects with residents and research facilities. The chapter ends with a section

discussing the challenges for smart home technology in the near future.

3.2 Smart home framework

Developments in the field of smart homes are not an isolated case. First of all the

developments take place within the society and are influenced by trends within

that society. Furthermore in order to create added value the focus should be on the

smart home environment instead of only on the used technology. Thirdly creating

smart environments to support elderly & disabled persons has enormous potential.

To live up fully to the expectations is however a complex process which involves

various stakeholders.

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3.2.1 Demographic trends

The major trend throughout Europe is the aging society caused by an increasing

life expectancy and decreasing birth rates. Not only the group of people over 65

will become a large proportion of the European society but there will also be a

significant increase in the number of people over 80. The proportion of population

aged over 65 and over is rising in all countries, however differences can be

observed. The ratio for Iceland, Ireland, Slovak Republic and Turkey lie well below

the average for Europe, whereas the ratio for Finland, Germany, Greece, Italy and

Sweden lie far above the average for Europe [OECD, 2005].

“It is a common understanding that population ageing, along with the increasing

survival rates from disabling accidents and illnesses, will lead to an increase in the

proportion of the population with impairments, disabilities or chronic illnesses.”

[European Commission, 2004] For instance the number of people with dementia

in The Netherlands is expected to rise from 250 000 in 2005 to 350 000 in 2020

and over 580 000 in 2050.

The way in which we are going to deal with this problem could differ among the

European countries for instance depending on the family structure, the availability

of broadband and the national healthcare system. “In southern Europe more

people live with their children than in the north of the continent. On the other

hand, broadband access to the internet, seen as vital for delivering AAL (Ambient

Assisted Living) services such as telemedicine, is more commonly available in

northern European countries.” [IST report, 2006]. Also the way in which health care

is financed and organized varies considerably among various countries. Schmidt,

Egler and Geursen (2001) define three types of health care systems present in

Europe.

• Tax-financed system, examples: Scandinavian countries, U.K., Italy, Greece

and Canada

• Premium financed system, examples: Japan, Germany, France, Belgium,

Netherlands, Austria

• Private insurance system, examples: USA, Switzerland.

3.2.2 Hierarchical classes of smart homes

During the past years as a result of technical developments the possibilities of

smart environments have risen tremendously. This increase in possibilities is

physically visible in different types of realized smart homes. In order to classify

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smart homes, a functional perspective can be used. Since smart home technology

is changing rapidly the functional perspective provides a better framework than a

technological point of view.

With a focus on the functionality available to the user Aldrich proposes five

hierarchical classes of smart homes [Aldrich, 2003]:

1. Homes which contain intelligent objects – homes contain single, stand-

alone applications and objects which function in an intelligent manner

2. Homes which contain intelligent, communicating objects – homes contain

appliances and objects which function intelligently in their own right and

which also exchange information between one another to increase

functionality

3. Connected homes – homes have internal and external networks, allowing

interactive and remote control of systems, as well as access to services and

information, both within and beyond the home

4. Learning homes – patterns of activity in the homes are recorded and the

accumulated data are used to anticipate users’ needs and to control the

technology accordingly

5. Attentive homes – the activity and location of people and objects within the

homes are constantly registered, and this information is used to control

technology in anticipation of the occupants’ needs.

Since broadband is becoming more widespread, available smart homes are shifting

within the hierarchy from homes which contain intelligent, communicating objects

to connected homes. Learning and attentive homes do exist but only in

demonstration settings. The technology used in those homes is in most instances

still experimental. From the viewpoint that a home should make a substantial

contribution to the quality of life, the home should at least be qualified as a

connected home. For the delivery of services to the home, a connection to an

external network is essential. This opinion is also expressed by CENELEC, the

European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization. Within the eEurope

context they have defined a working model of the Smart Home environment, with

its three separable interest areas as follows [Tronnier, 2003]:

1. The Smart House/Home and its in-house networks and applications, i.e the

clients

2. The access point to the Smart House, often referred to as residential

gateway

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3. Provision of services in a standardized way to the Smart House and related

access networks.

3.2.3 The stakeholders

The stakeholders when building intelligent environments are very diverse. They all

play a different role in the process and have different preferences and opinions. The

challenge is not only to develop concepts that are technically possible and reliable

but to create a concept that is supported and accepted by the large group of

stakeholders. Stakeholders are for instance architects, housing corporations, project

developers, electricians, builders, care takers, service suppliers, product suppliers,

advising agencies, insurance companies and last but not least the end consumer.

Regardless of whether a resident, home-owner, guest or whoever is being

considered, the home is always a physical setting, a house, in a relation to a

person. People use equipment by themselves, with other persons or they are used

entirely by other persons, for example by home help services. Other persons have

different roles.

Important roles are also those which are related to money, safety, responsibility

and social relations. If a person buys products or services, there is an issue of

product liability. It is more complicated if there are several service providers whose

products should work together.

In recent years smart home technology was mostly implemented in new homes.

This meant that smart home technology had to be fitted into the existing building

process. In Sweden a specific consultant in the area of smart home technology was

added to the project team. This consultant operated together with the architect,

the structural consultant, the mechanical consultant and the electrical consultant

[Sandström, Gustavsson, Lundberg, Keijer & Junestrand, 2005]. In most projects in

the Netherlands there is no specific smart home subcontractor or consultant for

smart home technology. In stead the electrical sub contractor is responsible for the

implementation of smart home technology. More specialized electrical

subcontractors call themselves system integrators in order to express their

knowledge about smart home technology.

With respect to the building process it is important to realize that the possibility to

make changes without huge investments declines during the building process

[Willems, 2003]. At the starting point of a building process the main decisions are

taken by architects, project developers, housing corporations and on very few

occasions by the end consumer. Therefore it is remarkable that the parties who are

going to benefit from the smart home technology only get to express their

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preferences during a stage in the building process where changes to the original

plan are very expensive (figure 3.1).

100%

Costs

100%

Possibility to change

research

preparation

realisation

use

Figure 3.1 Building process with an indication of the costs and the possibility to change

[Willems, 2003].

This opinion is also expressed by the Delta Centre in Norway [Laberg, Aspelund &

Thygesen, 2005]. They describe the following advantages of installing smart home

technology during the building process:

• Cheaper

• Part of a totality

• Savings also for parts of conventional installations

• The installation can be concealed.

When the home is constructed it can be owned or hired. In some countries there

can be a separate service house which is owned and maintained by a public or

some other organisation. The resident may have to pay a rent or various fees. The

market structure varies from country to country.

It is often typical for the market of assistive technologies that a third party finances

the equipment. It can be an insurance system, welfare organisation or public

administration. In some countries public administration may have a role in

providing, e.g., alarm systems, fixed assistive technologies or environment control

systems which are needed by an older person or a person with disabilities. It may

arrange the installation, pay for it wholly or in part, and arrange related services.

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The functioning of a social alarm system in fact presupposes that the alarm goes

to somebody who can react. They can be private or public service providers of

various kinds, e.g. home help services, or emergency services. When considering

services, the picture is more complicated than in case of single devices. Societies

are different and consequently national differences are greater. That is why one

should not too quickly promote only one service model [Stakes, 1998].

3.3 Smart home technology

The use of stand-alone equipment for helping people carry out everyday activities

– assistive technology – is widespread [Barlow, Bayer & Curry, 2003]. By

integrating stand-alone equipment into systems, the possibility to create a far more

customized and integrated approach to healthcare increases but also the

complexity of the system.

As computer-based systems and artefacts penetrate more and more into people’s

everyday lives and homes, the ‘design problem’ is not so much concerned with the

creation of new technical artefacts as it is with their effective and dependable

configuration and integration [Dewsbury, Rouncefield, Clarke & Sommerville,

2002].

Home Automation Systems

Security Systems

Multimedia Systems

Telecommunication Systems

Figure 3.2 schematic model of a technical structure of a smart home [Junestrand, 2004].

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Smart home technology is the integration of technology and services through

home networking for a better quality of living. At the moment smart home

technology is shifting from being purely concerned with the integration of electrical

equipment within the home to a broader perspective, which also includes ICT

functionalities. This is visible in the home environment (figure 3.2) in terms of

different networks for work & productivity, entertainment, communication and

information and home automation that are merging and connected to the outside

world by a residential gateway(s) [Junestrand, 2004].

The value of the home network does not depend on one single system but on the

way the different systems are connected to each other and supplement each other.

Furthermore the process is not static but the preferences and desires can change

over time. This section starts with general technological developments that could

provide benefits for assisted living. Thereafter the focus is on technology for the

home environment. Four topics concerning the home environment are covered in

this section: infrastructure, integration and interaction, wired versus wireless and

speech technology.

3.3.1 General technological developments

“There is a technology race for smaller, cheaper and faster processors, for terabit

memories, and ever greater communication bandwidths. At the same time,

advances in sensor technologies, microsystems, displays and software, are paving

the way for new systems and applications characterized by intuitive, flexible and

more autonomous behaviour. Breakthroughs are also expected by pursuing ICT

research in combination with other disciplines, for example those related to new

materials, bio- and life sciences and from the knowledge base of the cognitive,

biological and social sciences” [ISTAG, 2006].

These new technologies will become part of the environment in which people fulfil

their tasks and in which people live. User interfaces will disappear and interaction

will be with a federation of devices like sensors, actuators and microcomputers. The

communication in these intelligent surroundings will be based on conversational

interaction technologies such as speech, gesture and emotions. In such an

environment human-computer interaction will be transformed into human-

computer co-operation. In this sense Weiser’s vision of “Machines that fit the

human environment instead of forcing humans to enter theirs will make using a

computer as refreshing as a walk in the woods” [Weiser, 1991] could become

reality.

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All technological fields and options that meet the user needs and demand, or help

to solve general Ambient Assisted Living challenges are relevant for smart home

technology. Nevertheless, fields of higher priority can be identified:

• New materials (e.g. polymer technologies)

• Micro- and nanoelectronics (nanocoatings, polymer actuators)

• Embedded systems (e.g. as in smart textiles)

• Micro System Technology, including biomicrotechnology (biochips, sensors to

measure values like blood pressure, temperature, weight, respiration, urine

output and to observe activity patterns nutrition, gait sleep)

• Energy generation and control technologies (energy harvesting)

• Human Machine Interfaces (display technologies, natural language

communication)

• Communication (e.g. body area network)

• Software, web & network technologies (e.g. tele-services)

[Steg, Strese, Loroff, Hull & Schmidt, 2006].

This list emphasizes again the complexity of the field of smart home technology. A

lot of technological developments could create new possibilities for assisted living.

It is a challenge to keep track of all the developments and to combine results from

different technological fields into useful concepts.

3.3.2 Infrastructure

The development of smart home technology during the past years is best described

by using a model consisting of three layers:

• Network layer

• Platform layer

• User layer.

The network refers to the familiar cables which we already have to a large extent,

both inside and outside the house: telephone cable, TV cable and the power supply

network. It also refers to the extra infrastructure which in most cases does not exist

yet: computer cables and lower voltage cables. It refers to infrared (IR) and radio

frequent communication (RF).

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Products of traditional suppliers contain a protocol, which allows communication

between the products, remote control and central control by the resident. Ideally,

all products of the different manufacturers can communicate via the same

protocol. In practice, this is however not the case.

A homebus is a physical wire, a special low voltage cable, which is used to transfer

signals within the house via a certain protocol. Generally, two types of homebus

systems can be distinguished: the systems with fixed, built-in intelligence and the

systems which can be programmed via a PC. Next to the homebus systems there

are the powerline systems and the RF systems to transfer signals within the home.

From the powerline systems, the X10 is the oldest one. Improvements on this

protocol resulted in the so-called A10 system, which has a growing popularity for

use in both newly built and existing houses, because of its low pricing. Recently,

various RF-systems are coming on the market, facilitating installation of smart

technology in existing dwellings.

All media are different in their properties and have both, advantages and

disadvantages. The right selection is also a question of cost. As a general rule, more

data speed means higher costs. However, the demand of bandwidth or bit rate

strongly depends on the application. In general, for control data transmission, a bit

rate of some kbps is sufficient. This holds for the most of the smart home

components (sensors, actuators, control and visualization units). However, for

telecommunication purposes (above all video communication), the bit rate exceeds

to the Megabit range. Figure 3.3 shows an overview of several transmission media

that exist.

Transmission Media

Wired

Wireless

Twisted Pair

Radio Frequency

Infrared

Power Line

Narrow Band

Coaxial Cable

Spread Spectra

Optical Fiber

Microwave

Figure 3.3 Transmission Media [Fellbaum, 1999]

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In accordance with this overview Laberg, Aspelund and Thygesen (2005) state that

the following standards are at the moment the most relevant standards:

EIB

EIB (European Installation Bus) is an open standard widely used in Europe. EIB is

available for powerline, signal cable and radio. The single cable version is currently

the most widely used in smart homes.

KNX

KNX is a new standard resulting from an amalgamation of three European bus

standards, with EIB being one of them. KNX is expected to replace EIB in the near

future. KNX fully complies to the EN 50090 series, the European Standard for

Home and Building Electronic Systems.

LON

LON (Local Operating Network) is a proprietary standard, used for energy-control,

steering machinery and access control systems in industry and larger buildings. The

standard is mostly known for powerline signalling, but also supports signal cables,

coaxial cables, radio and fibre optical transmission.

X10

X10 is a standard for powerline signalling, widely used for management of

domestic electrical commodities, like lamps and radiators. It is also used in

environmental control systems in single houses. The protocol has small range of

commands, limited to start and stop.

BACnet

BACnet is a standard developed in the USA for the control of functions in larger

buildings, but has so far not been observed in European smart homes. BACnet is

supposed to easily communicate with the EIB.

Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Protocol (IP) is not used as a bus system, but is relevant for communicating

in and out of local networks during re-programming and maintenance. IP is also

becoming more and more important for communication within the local network.

This list shows that there is not just one standard for smart home technology, but

there are several. Standardization is however an important issue for the success of

smart home technology. The end user, housing operator and real estate

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management should have the freedom to choose the applications and services

they want to use and should not be forced to buy products from one specific

supplier. They also should have the possibility to expand the system with little

effort. In that way the end user can always adjust the home to their specific wishes

and the housing operator and real estate management have homes that have a

good market value for a long period of time. According to CENELEC interoperability

must be addressed at different levels such as terminal devices, content delivery and

presentation across different platforms. Furthermore standardization agreements

do not restrict competition, if the standards are adopted by recognized standards

organizations, which work according to open, non-discriminatory and transparent

procedures.

In this context two initiatives are mentioned here. The first is the KNX standard. An

important aspect of this standard is that it supports different media types. Owing

to the 4 different supported media types in the KNX Standard, installers can use

the media best suited for the transport of KNX messages (e.g. Twisted Pair in new

installations, Power Line or Radio Frequency in renovations or retrofit). KNX

messages can also be transported inside IP messages: KNX and Internet can in this

way be linked (www.konnex.org).

The second initiative is the SmartHouse Code of Practice developed by CENELEC

[Pattenden, 2005]. This code is a document that provides a “system designer”

working to implement a SmartHouse (to be used as dwelling and as a home office)

with a source of information on sensible and pragmatic guidelines for the design,

installation and maintenance of SmartHouse systems and the services and

applications provided. It is recognized that providers and installers must work

within diverse regulatory environments and must be free to make choices

appropriate to their business objectives (which in relation to this document focus

on meeting the needs of domestic and small-office users, not large-scale

commercial premises). Therefore, standards should be considered as enablers and

leave prescriptive aspects to local regulation. The aim is to provide a useful

reference document to ensure that the user may exploit the benefits of a consistent

systemarchitecture by utilizing European and International Standards and other

generally accepted specifications in the design of the Smart House system. This

code of practice delivers a route to investment synergies, flexibility of services and

useful and usable applications that satisfy the individual consumer’s needs and

requirements.

But for now and the near future, an optimum solution is a hybrid network,

consisting of Power Line as well as other cables (if already existing) and wireless

components (WLAN).

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3.3.3 Integration and interaction

A major problem with smart home design is the integration and interaction among

heterogeneous subsystems, which may probably not be designed to interact with

each other. Assistive technologies are very heterogeneous when attending needs

due to individual and temporal variations. Moreover, devices are usually designed

by different manufacturers using different technologies for heterogeneous

applications. The Design-for-All concept considers the lack of simplification usually

made when considering a standard user. At the same time, this lack of

standardization and individual diversity and variability increases heterogeneity in

subsystem development, both in terms of applications and services, in a kind of

vicious circle. The result may be called "islands of functionality": solutions adapted

to specific users in particular environments.

A smart home should be able to support the interaction of heterogeneous devices,

networks, services and applications. First, there is a need to interact at the

internetworking level. At this level, the necessary mobility of the user implies that

interconnectivity cannot be guaranteed at all times so communications should be

asynchronous. Clients asking for a service and devices offering it may not be

connected at the same time. Therefore, the communication paradigm should be

connectionless (vs. connection oriented), well suited for intermittent connections.

In smart homes, if a backbone fixed infrastructure is available then a Nomadic

system may be better than an ad hoc system: mobile devices connected through

wireless links to a fixed wired network. For instance the backbone network may be

based on the IP protocol, a robust and contrasted solution, which has

demonstrated its success in the interconnection of heterogeneous devices (a good

example is the Internet). Most devices can be connected through this IP network

while secondary, maybe simpler, devices (e.g. sensors) may be connected using

non-IP communications. In this case a gateway is used to interconnect IP and non-

IP sub-networks. This solution permits environmental control in a remote mode via

a web page as well as direct Internet access in home automation through

residential gateways.

Second, interoperability should include dynamic service discovering (periodically or

triggered by determined events), service description (including actions that may be

performed, properties that may be useful), and service control (actions and

modifications of state or attributes of a service in a sub-network from another

device connected to a different sub-network). Services and information from a

given subsystem should be described using common languages and media formats

to be accessible to other subsystems. I n t e raction between context-awa r e

subsystems requires common context representations that are independent of the

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applications. But it is not just a simple problem of using a common format. Further

issues are how this context information is interchanged among subsystems, how

services are discovered or offered, and how they are integrated in user interfaces.

A number of available architectures can support these functions: HAVi, Jini, UPnP

(Universal Plug and Play).

This interaction is usually a syntactic intera c t i o n , without considering the

“meaning” of discovered and shared services. However, in the future a higher level

of semantic interactions may be possible allowing services to be pre-selected to

offer adapted assistive services to the right people or to adapt or empower the

functionality of existing applications according to new services. New applications

may become available based on the new services.

A typical example of this interaction could be a sensor network monitoring

physiological parameters (heart rate, blood pressure, sugar level). Some of the

sensors may be body-worn, using a low-rate WPAN like 802.15.4. Others, may be

integrated into the surroundings (chair, bed, building), probably connected through

a backbone network like EIB or a WLAN like 802.11g. One of the body sensors may

act as a bridge to the ambient sensor network, providing interconnectivity at the

network level. But additionally, these devices may interoperate themselves at a

higher level. As an example, in a health monitoring application alarms or drug

doses may be adapted using information from the ambient sensors, for instance

inferring the user activity state (e.g. driving, sleeping, exercising, or talking to

someone).

3.3.4 Wired versus wireless

Wireless technologies have clear advantages and drawbacks when applied to the

smart home environment. Among the advantages, flexibility and easy installation

are clearly important characteristics in this type of networks. Among the

drawbacks, clearly safety and security can’t reach the levels which can be obtained

with wired networks, deterministic response times are not possible and RF

emissions might cause some user concern.

Research investigating spread spectrum techniques in the 2.4 GHz range which

allow a protected transmission to solve the security problem are being conducted

[Fellbaum, 1999, van Berlo, 1999 and Flikkema, 1997]. They are robust against

sinus- and noise-like disturbance sources and wall reflections and they avoid

crosstalk effects between the different RF channels. There is only a serious problem

if a microwave oven is used. This device produces a wide band disturbance signal

which can easily blot out the control and communication signals, even if the oven

is carefully shielded.

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However, it is clear that, in many cases the advantages overcome the drawbacks

and wireless network become the most feasible alternative for home automation.

Originally wireless smart home networks were based on protocols specifically

designed for this purpose but currently, due to the huge penetration of computer

and telecom wireless networks, this is not always the case. To be more specific,

three different network families are currently used to support smart homes:

• Traditional RF Home automation networks: These are usually based on

relatively low frequency carriers and modulation techniques are usually quite

basic, thus available bandwidth is usually very small (a few kbits/s or lower).

Examples of these protocols include X10 over RF (at 200MHz) or KNX over

RF (at 868MHz). Many proprietary networks based on RF remote control

frequencies (433MHz) are also widely used

• Wideband RF protocols: These protocols were originally designed for

computer networks and provide relatively high bandwidth (currently up to

hundreds of Mbits/s). They usually operate at 2.4GHz or 5GHz. Currently the

most popular among these type of networks is the WiFi family (IEEE

802.11a/b/g). These networks are very useful for relatively complex devices

but for simple devices, the costs per node and especially power consumption

rule them out

• Generic Low power networks: These networks have been designed very

specifically for mobile device and optimized for low power usage. Bluetooth

is currently the most widely used but its protocols are relatively complex and

its power requirements are not suitable for devices that have to run on a

small battery for years (or get the power somehow from the environment).

Zigbee is a new type of very low power, low complexity network with some

built in localisation capabilities that seems to be very promising for smart

home applications.

Probably in the near future most smart home networks will be based on a mix of

WiFi and low power networks interoperating possibly with some wired segments

as well.

3.3.5 Speech technology

The principles of electronic speech processing as well as applications for persons

with disabilities have already been presented in Chapter 2.2.2. In this section the

focus will be on the use of speech technology in smart homes, especially for elderly

people.

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A serious problem of a lot of technology in the home environment is an adequate

control of these systems. Let’s consider a person with some mobility problems,

sitting in a chair in front of a TV set. Usually a remote control is available. A first

idea could be to extend the number of keys of the remote control in order to add

more control functions. However, with more keys the number of malfunctions will

significantly increase and, especially with elderly people, the user acceptance will

dramatically decrease. With a voice controlled system, virtually all control functions

can be executed by voice, which also includes a voice output (with the aid of a

small built-in loudspeaker), a visual component is however indispensable to remind

the user about the functionality he is controlling. The right ‘mixture’ of audio and

visual information, in other words, the ergonomics, has a strong influence on the

acceptance by the user [Hampicke, 2000].

In an Ambient Intelligence environment (see chapter 4) walls and objects of

everyday use have intelligence. In the case of speech processing the walls have

built-in microphones, mostly arranged in arra y s, l o u d s p e a kers and enough

processing power to fulfil all speech processing activities being used for

recognition and synthesis: the walls can listen and speak. Moreover, displays which

are needed, also in a speech dialogue application, can appear everywhere on the

walls. The above scenario, which may sound like science fiction, is quite feasible

today.

While speech recognition tries to detect the content of a spoken utterance, speaker

recognition investigates the identity of the speaking person. The main application

for speaker recognition is access control. It can be the access to houses and/or

rooms or the access to computers or household appliances (including voice-

controlled cooking or washing). The reliability of systems that are on the market

sometimes isn’t sufficient. The reliability of the total system can be improved by

combining speaker recognition with other forms of control, for instance face

recognition by a camera.

3.4 Products and services

Within the field of smart home technology products and services play an important

role in creating benefits for users. In general products and services can be divided

into six categories:

1. Comfort

2. Energy management

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3. Multimedia and entertainment

4. Healthcare

5. Security and Safety

6. Communication.

The division is not strict, the different categories overlap. Mostly people don’t

choose just one category but several. The different categories strengthen each

other leading to the fact that overall functionality of several categories combined

is more than the sum of functionality of the independent categories.

It is impossible to give an extensive overview in this chapter, or anywhere else for

that matter, since new products and services are developing at such a rapid pace

whilst by combining solutions new products and services are formed.

The emphasis in this section is on products and services belonging to the

categories healthcare, security and safety and communication, giving some

examples of solutions that fall within the different categories. For a broader

perspective a list compiled by the Ambient Assisted Living Initiative is available

[Steg, Strese, Loroff, Hull & Schmidt, 2006].

3.4.1 Healthcare

On a global level healthcare solutions can be divided in the following categories:

• Active alarm systems: utilize remote emergency systems – usually telephone

based – installed in the home of older persons

• Passive alarm systems: do not require the interaction of the person. For

example, devices include sensors that are able to recognize the danger of a

fire and send an emergency call automatically

• Remote support for care staff: include all kinds of telecommunication-based

activities supporting the work of field staff

• Remote support for family carers: includes all kinds of telecommunication-

based activities supporting family carers

• Advanced services using video telephony: include remote monitoring and

video-based alarm services

• Telemedicine

[European SeniorWatch Observatory and Inventory, 2002].

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Alarm systems play a very important role in Smart Home applications. However, the

systems, existing so far, are very often too complicated or not reliable enough. The

key issue is the setting off of alarms. If, for instance, persons have an accident (fall,

injury), a fire breaks out or a person suddenly becomes unconscious, then there is

normally no time or possibility to operate a telephone or even an alarm button on

their wrist or around their neck. Although there were many alarm systems on the

market and several research projects have looked into this particular issue (e.g. the

TIDE projects FASDE and ASHoRED) exist, there is still a large knowledge gap as to

how persons react in a dramatic situation, be it panic or a collapse or simply

because they are confused or have memory problems (forget that they are wearing

an alarm button).

Probably the best solutions to overcome these problems are passive systems.

Passive means an automatic control of vital functions (e.g. pulse, blood pressure,

oxygen saturation), their evaluation and an automatic alarm being set off when the

values of the vital parameters exceed predefined limits. The reliability of the alarm

being set off can be dramatically increased when several different observations and

decisions are combined. Among the measurement of vital parameters as described

above, the person’s activity (leaving and entering rooms, using water, electric light,

TV and radio and many more) can give important additional information.

In order to avoid false alarms the receiver of the alarm (e.g. call centre or relatives)

sends back a signal to the user for instance by telephone or via a message that

appears on the alarm module worn on the wrist or around the neck. In the case of

a false alarm, the user can answer the phone or press the button of the module

indicating that no help is needed thus avoiding unnecessary attendance. If, on the

other hand, the user does not react, it can be assumed that the alarm is serious

[Hampicke, 2004].

One huge problem in healthcare is wandering and wayfinding. There are systems

to detect where a client leaves the house where this would be inappropriate or

dangerous for the client. These systems consist of magnetic contacts or pressure

mats at/near hall door connected to local area (family) paging. The system, of

course, does not restrict egress, but merely alerts a carer that the client has left.

Similarly, for wayfinding (at night) lighting strips and passive infra-red light

switches can assist and reduce the likelihood of a fall or disorientation around the

house at night.

An area that receives an increasing amount of interest is telemonitoring or

personal health monitoring is based on the idea that persons can monitor

themselves in their home using medical devices. Health care monitoring at home

enables continuous measuring of physiological parameters. It is possible to embed

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sensors in different places or objects at home (e.g. in the furniture, electrical

appliances), or to make them wearable by integrating them into clothing "Smart

Shirt" or small apparel items such as watches and jewellery. By combining these

wearable sensors with measurement devices embedded in home surroundings,

advanced multiparametric health monitoring may be achieved [Korhonen, Pärkkä

& van Gils, 2003].

Recording of physiological and psychological variables in real-life conditions could

be especially useful in management of chronic disorders or health problems; e.g.

for high blood pressure, diabetes, anorexia nervosa, chronic pain, or severe obesity

[Korhonen, Pärkkä & van Gils, 2003]. Telemonitoring could also be used to provide

feedback about someone’s health in the form of behavioural feedback in order to

prevent diseases.

Obviously telemonitoring has many advantages for both, the patient and the

medical institutions. The patient can stay at home and does not have the

inconvenience, associated with a visit of the doctor or in the hospital, and the

medical institution saves time because there is no need for spending time with

routine work and in the hospital enormous costs for the bed and the care of the

medical staff can be saved. In several telemonitoring applications the data are not

directly transmitted to the medical institutions but to a kind of ‘call centre’, which

performs a first data evaluation.

3.4.2 Security and safety

Top priority for many older people is the feeling of living safely and securely in their

own house. In general, people like to know who is at the central access door of the

flat and at the front door of the own apartment, before opening the door. In many

projects this access control has been facilitated via remote control by phone, on TV

and electronic locks on central access door and own apartment door. In some

projects an intrusion alarm is present. Residents have to enter a code or use a

proximity key to switch off the alarm.

A smoke detector is installed in all projects, as near as possible to or in the kitchen.

In some cases there are even smoke detectors in kitchen, living room and bedroom.

If smoke is detected an alarm signal is given to a call centre automatically. First,

the call-centre operator will speak to the resident via the safety alarm phone if

there is a real fire. The smoke detector can be accompanied by other sensors to

create an even safer environment.

Older people have a more frequent nightly toilet visit than younger people. With

automatic light switching on when the legs are put out of the bed, one can better

orientate and find the way to the bathroom without risks of falling.

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In most cases the electric or gas cooker can be switched off via an extra button,

which also switches off the light on the working area. On the other hand the

cooker cannot be used if the light on the working area is not switched on. There

are also examples where there are two switches: one switch to activate the cooker

and one to turn on the light. If the resident leaves the house, the cooker is

automatically switched off. The same is true when the tenant goes to sleep and

uses the button "day/night" above the bed or in case of an alarm.

3.4.3 Communication

One of the most commonly used smart home technologies is internal and external

Intercom systems, providing elderly and disabled people with a method of

communicating with those calling at their door and to other rooms in the home.

Many mobility impaired persons will require an intercom system in order to safely

answer the front door without having to go to it. Going to the door may be (a)

impossible or (b) difficult or slow causing danger transferring to a wheelchair or

missing the caller due to the delay. Using CCTV in addition can enhance personal

security when admitting visitors and may also provide verification that the visitor

has actually left the house if they have been visiting a person in an inner room.

The video signal can be distributed to a TV or any other kind of screen within or

outside the home. It is also possible to send the signal from the front door to a call

centre where a person at the centre can talk to the visitor. This could be helpful

when it is late in the evening and the resident feels insecure when answering the

door bell.

Communication isn’t restricted to ‘normal’ activities in the home environment it

can also be used for remote learning. In order for remote learning to be successful,

the technical infrastructure must be in place. In today’s technology, this means the

student should have access to a wireless network, web cams, a microphone,

keyboard access and full telecommunication infrastructure linking the home to the

outside world. All of these can be set up exactly to the user’s requirements, in a

manner that would be extremely difficult or even impossible in a classroom

environment.

Remote learning carried out in a smart home would need to take place as part of

a designed educational system, and could not be put in place piecemeal. An

assessment of the needs of the student would also need to be carried out to insure

that the student will be able to access all parts of the course he or she has enrolled

for.

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Once the correct structure is in place, the potential benefits are impressive; a

student will have access to the expertise needed to complete the course, the

student experience will have an immediacy to it, as the student would not need to

invest time and energy travelling to a class. Their needs would be addressed in a

very individual way. Education delivered to a smart home would overcome

geographical or environmental barriers to such services. It would allow direct

communication with the instructor, and gives access to resources immediately:

educational as well as personal, health and social care. Because a smart home also

gives access to wider society (for example, e - g o v e r n m e n t , shopping and

entertainment), a student would have more time available to him or her, so their

quality of life would improve.

For many, accessing good and reliable information about suitable technology is a

significant barrier to using technology that meets their individual needs. The

Central Remedial Clinic in Ireland, provides a vendor neutral information and

evaluation service. People with disabilities, their families, carers and other service

providers can get up to date information about the technologies currently available

in Ireland and can receive guidance in terms of how such technology may be

installed and set up for use in their own homes. Staff at the Central Remedial Clinic

works to identify the reasons why a person is seeking such technologies and then

devise a solution based on the supports that are available to the person and

contextual and environmental factors such as the location of their home. Smart

home solutions usually comprise recommending a range of technologies that are

to be placed in a person’s home environment and a method of controlling these

that is suited to a person’s individual needs.

3.5 User interaction

The advent of smart homes is part of the overall pattern of convergence that is

occurring in technology. Through the exploitation of advances in high tech

networks, the smart home allows the convergence of the different environments of

an individual’s life, the personal, leisure, workspace and educational environments.

The greatest advantage of the smart home is that it uses non-intrusive technology

that can be completely personalised to the individual. During the past years the

user has taken a more central place in the development of smart home technology.

This is only logical since the acceptance of products depends mainly on the

reaction of the user.

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This paragraph is divided into three sections. The first section is devoted to

acceptance. The second section focuses on adaptive and intelligent user interfaces

and the last section is devoted to ethical issues.

3.5.1 Acceptance

Use and acceptance of technologies and technical devices depend on various

f a c t o r s : adequate design, financial resources, the housing situation, w h i c h

functions shall be compensated or strengthened by technologies and which skills

and competences still exist [Mollenkopf, 1994].

Although it is quite true that use and acceptance of innovations can only be

roughly estimated today we nevertheless can list a set of important aspects that

should be considered when speaking about user requirements and acceptance:

• People do not accept everything that is technologically possible and available

• Ambient Assisted Living concerns a heterogeneous group, where solutions

therefore are accordingly multifaceted. There is no such thing as a typical,

standard user or use rather a diversity of users and uses

• Acceptance by a user depends on the obvious advantages, functionality,

utility, usability, price/financial resources, (data)security and adequate (barrier

free, no stigmatisation) design of the device as well as on her biographical

and technological experiences

• New products should consider ‘old’ habits of the users

• The systems should stay user-determined. At any time an user intervention

has to be possible

• Information, training for usage, support, error diagnosis and error removal

has to be appropriate for the target group

• Technologies should provide an additional aid to improve social life

conditions; they can never replace social interaction

• The new living environment/ambience should not generate new risks

• Integration into existing infrastructure should be easily accomplished

• Possibility of easy expansion/upgrades of products or integration of new

devices according to (changing) user requirements and financial boundary

conditions should be given

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• Multifunctionality of physical and electronic user interfaces (‘universal

remote control’, ‘Internet-TV’) should be provided services. People own

technologies but may not use them; people use technologies but may not

have confidence in them.

[Steg, Strese, Loroff, Hull & Schmidt, 2006].

3.5.2 Adaptive and Intelligent user interfaces

A smart home may provide an extremely large number of choices and some of

them may be quite complex. An interface that directly offers all the possibilities to

the user may result cumbersome and complex. On the contrary, the user interface

should act as an intelligent intermediary between the complex system and the user.

Adaptive intelligent interfaces can be designed by means of Artificial Intelligence

methods and techniques.

Intelligent interfaces are able to adapt to the user physical, sensorial and cognitive

features that may be restricted due to aging or disabilities. In addiction, some of

these characteristics can change quite quickly -for example along the day- due to

fatigue, and changes in motivation. To this end, the interface has a model of the

user and is able to make some assumptions about the actual situation of the user

from the current value of a number of parameters.

Another important characteristic of the human interfaces for smart homes is the

spatial dependency. Many features depend on the position of the user. For

instance, the sentence "switch on the lights" must be differently interpreted

according to the place where is has been said. Provided that the user is located

with enough precision, the interface needs a spatial model to be able to decide

what is possible or not at this place. The dialogue can be very much simplified

when the position of the user is known, because many ambiguities can be solved

(for instance, there is no need to ask "what lights?"). In addition, the services that

can be offered to the user are restricted to the ones present in its current location.

Adaptive intelligent interfaces can also have problems, the most important one

being misadaptation. The adoption of erroneous assumptions about the user may

make communication impossible. For instance, if the system misunderstands the

user and adopts a voice interface, instead of text communication, when interacting

with a deaf person.

Another problem could be "over-automation". Even if the smart home usually can

take most of the decisions, the user can also take many of them. Some decisions

(about energy, safety, etc.) may be boring for the user and he or she will be happy

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to be relieved of them. Nevertheless, it is very uncomfortable when the system

takes decisions for which the user wants to keep control. The complete automation

can also lead to user's passivity. Shared control is a better approach to this

problem. In this case the system should be able to detect which kinds of decisions

are retained by the user. It is necessary to include this information in the user

model, taking into account that the set of choices of the user may change with the

context, his or her mood, etc.

3.5.3 Ethical issues

The design of human interfaces for smart environments poses in general many

ethical questions, as mentioned by numerous authors [Langheinrich, 2001 and

Beresford & Stajano, 2003]. However, when the system will be used by people with

sensorial, physical or cognitive restrictions, the matter is even more difficult

[Pompano, 2000]. These issues are treated in chapter 4.3. Nevertheless, let us

mention some basic ideas.

In order to avoid possible negative impact over user rights caused by Assistive

Technology, Casas [Casas et al, 2006] state that designers should (1) be aware of

the possibility of producing technology having side effects over social and personal

issues; (2) know how to identify and face ethical issues, or be able to contact

experts that can do this task, (3) have at their disposal design methodologies and

tools that do not impede ethical aware design; and (4) master methodologies and

tools for evaluation and test of the results including evaluation of ethical impact.

Smart homes frequently include devices and services that may have an impact on

the privacy and the autonomy of users. Often these effects are deeply embedded

in the technology used to develop them and can not be removed when the system

is finished. However, designers are predisposed to ignore these issues, due

frequently to the lack of knowledge and supporting methodologies, guidelines,

tools, etc. In this sense, Abascal and Nicolle (2005) discuss the need of providing

designers with ethically aware guidelines to help them to detect possible ethical

impacts produced by their designs, and provide a preliminary set of ethically aware

design guidelines.

Within specific projects, researchers a trying to deal with the ethical issues by

focusing on the exact nature of required information. In a project researching

automated analysis of nursing home observations, the researchers along with

medical experts concluded that the end goal wasn’t perfect video analysis. In stead

capturing trend information over time was critical for patient assessments and

diagnoses [Hauptmann, Gao, Yan, Qi, Yang & Wactlar, 2004]. Other projects focus

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on ways to extract silhouettes from persons in a video signal in order to identify

activity but not identity. Their approach was to extract the human body from the

background and fill the corresponding image region with white pixels so as to

block the identifying features [Chen, He, Keller, Anderson & Skubic, 2006]. While

only using a silhouette it is still possible to identify whether a person is standing

or lying down. Coupled with information about a person’s location, t h i s

information could be useful in establishing if someone has fallen down.

3.6 Realized projects

This paragraph is divided into two sections. The first section focuses on projects

with residents and the second on research facilities. In this chapter a brief overview

of projects is given. More detailed information about realized projects is available

in the form of two short term scientific reports and a working group report also

compiled within COST 219ter [Hampicke, 2004, Bierhoff, 2006 and Bierhoff et al.,

2007].

3.6.1 Projects with residents

In a way everybody can benefit from smart home technology. However, as

described earlier the process of implementing smart home technology is very

complex. Especially with regard to living independently in their own home various

stakeholders are not used to working together. Therefore the most important

knowledge is gained while actually implementing smart home technology in the

home environment. This paragraph starts with some examples of target groups for

smart home technology. After that some evaluation methods are discussed. The

third part of the section is devoted to examples from different countries. The

section ends with overall results and recommendations.

Target groups

Not everyone is an early adopter of new technologies. Some people like new

gadgets or having the latest technologies in their cars, homes and workplaces.

However, many people are either suspicious of new technology, or in some cases

frightened by it. Concerns about security, safety and privacy are widespread.

Europeans in particular seem less inclined to accept new technologies that their

counterparts in the United States and the Asia-Pacific region.

A distinction commonly used by project developers and real estate managers

makes use of age and family situation. Specific attention is also paid to elderly

people as a target group. In table 3.1 the priorities for specific functions are

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displayed. The number of dots indicates the priority by the different target group.

When more dots are displayed the priority level is higher.

With a marketing point of view other lists are composed using the stage in life a

person has reached, mass customisation and the way a person experiences the

home environment as a reference.

Research regarding smart home technology in relationship to lifestyles is still at an

early stage. Some target groups are defined but is not yet clear whether or not the

classifications are useful in evaluating smart home environments. Gann, Barlow

and Venables, (1999) define four households that have the most to gain from

smart home systems:

• Households in which both partners are employed

• Highly mobile, single-person households

• Families in middle age

• Older persons with limited physical abilities and people with disabilities.

< 35 years

35-55 years

> 55 years

Elderly in

1 or 2

family

1 or 2

need of care

persons

persons

households

households

Security

•

••

•••

•••

Comfort

••

••

•••

••

Services

•••

••

•••

•••

Care

•

•••

Communication

•••

•••

••

••

Data systems

•••

•••

•

••

Entertainment

•••

•••

•

••

Table 3.1. Overview of priorities within the home environment.

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Evaluation methods

When evaluating smart home projects the main areas of interest are utility,

usability and accessibility. In order to make a useful evaluation the residents need

to live in their smart home for some months. In that period of time they are used

to living in a smart home and are able to express a deliberate opinion.

The project team for a smart home project consists of many different members.

When evaluating projects you need to involve all the members. Opinions about the

process can be gathered by conducting interviews. It is important to speak with the

nursing and maintenance staff. They know about most complains that are

expressed by the residents.

For a first impression of a smart home a walk through can be a very useful method.

In a very short time span, the evaluator gets an overview of the applied

applications and services. An important aspect is to look at the way an application

is installed.

At the interview and walk through stage, it is time to talk to the residents. At this

point most of the major problems have been identified and are familiar, so extra

focus can be on specific experiences from the residents. A very informative method

is conducting task analyses. Not only is a good impression obtained of the way

residents operate the system, but many residents also give comments while they

are carrying out tasks that contain information about the way their mind works

while operating the system. Sometimes a small misunderstanding about how to

properly operate of the smart home can lead to not being able to operate the

system at all.

Examples from different countries

The Netherlands

[van Berlo, 1997,1999, 2002, 2005; Bierhoff, 2006, 2007]

The Smart Homes Association started in 1993 as a pioneer in realizing smart home

technology projects in the Netherlands. During the first, experimental, smart home

projects a list of 10 desired functionalities was composed after panel sessions and

interviews with the future residents. During the evaluation of the experimental

projects it was concluded that a lot of residents didn’t want all of the applications

installed in their home. Therefore in the following projects packages of applications

were offered. For instance there was a package ‘Security’ and a package ‘Comfort’.

Residents could choose between the different packages and could also make

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combinations of packages. But still the desired functionalities were pre-defined.

Another approach is to divide applications and services within the smart home into

categories by using the functionalities available to the residents as a basis, making

it clear to the residents in what area they can expect the benefits of the installed

technology to occur.

Most of the applications and services refer to independent, safe, secure and

comfortable living of senior citizens. Evaluations have been carried out in many of

the projects. The overall conclusion is that, despite some shortcomings in lay-out

and human interfaces, there is an overall feeling of safety and security among the

residents of the smart home projects. People feel protected with a guarantee of

follow up if something happens. Those residents who still feel well and active do

not want all applications to be active from the beginning. They are very satisfied

with the options in the house in case they really need them. The subjective feeling

of mastering one’s own life, without being dependent on the help of other persons,

is an important aspect of smart home technology, to strengthen one’s self-respect

and quality of life.

The number of projects with smart home technology is gradually growing and the

discussion about the possibility of the use of smart home technology starts earlier

in the design process than some years ago. The main characteristic of the early

projects is that they have a fairly large amount of home automation, but that they

are not web-based controlled. This is however rapidly changing. Recent projects

are equipped with residential gateways that collect large amounts of data from the

home environment. From that data trends are derived and automatic actions are

performed or residents are provided with advice. This development is accompanied

by the awareness to create an open technical infrastructure for instance by using

the IP-protocol. The supplier market in The Netherlands has come to the point that

they realize that no one is able to reach a breakthrough in the market of smart

home technology on their own and that it is necessary to work together.

Another important development is the rise of e-services, not only in Th e

Netherlands but throughout Europe. Driven by technological progress and

competition, fixed and wireless broadband infrastructures have been rolled out,

allowing the delivery of services in new ways, to new places, through different

payment schemes [Special Eurobarometer 249, 2006]. In the Netherlands the

basics are covered for the provision of e-services. More than seven in ten

households in the Netherlands have a computer, 80% of the households have

Internet at home and the Netherlands top the broadband Internet access ranking

with a figure of 62% [Special Eurobarometer 249, 2006].

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With the availability of a broadband network the possibilities for services rise. For

instance during the past several years over five projects that deliver care via a

screen-to-screen contact have started and are already out of the pilot phase and

are available for the public. This was recognized by funding committees that made

it possible to refund screen-to-screen contact in the same way as a physical visit.

Development of useful and profitable services and research on how to interpret all

the information collected by sensors in the home environment are important next

steps in the area of smart home technology. Smart Homes Association is involved

in several projects where these issues are covered.

Sweden

Within Sweden broadband has been widely available for several years now.

Resulting is several services that are developed like for instance the booking of

common facilities in an apartment building, energy measurement within

apartments and the development of a national IT-infrastructure for Healthcare in

Sweden. Within the Swedish Handicap Institute a programme called ”IT in

Practice” started in the year 2000 and funded projects and pre-studies for a period

of three years. The aim of the project was to develop and apply IT for various

categories of users [Spindler, 2001].

An example of a nation wide infrastructure is Sjunet (figure 3.4) which is part of

Carelink (the national cooperation to develop the use of IT in Swedish health care)

and is a platform for:

• Healthcare cooperations

• National telemedical knowledge centres

• Reducing lead time in the care process

• Electronic Trade

• Videoconferences

• National Healthcare projects.

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Certificate provider

X.500

directory

Local

Healthcare Advising

Authorities

1177

Sjunet

National

Authorities

Local

E-message node

Authorities

Videobridge

Population database

National Tax

Board

Figure 3.4 Services within Sjunet (Carelink).

An evaluation of Sjunet resulted in the following benefits:

• Increased collaboration

• Increased access to higher knowledge/competence

• Increased use of advanced equipment

• Less physical transport

• Increased opportunities for external communication with health care

• Reduced costs for staff

• Increased access to medical information

• More effective education.

These results show that with the availability of a good infrastructure, not only

within the home environment but also nation wide, the possibilities for supporting

independent living increase immensely.

Finland

Smart building started in Finland, like elsewhere, in the office environment. This has

often meant a complex communication and safety environment. In the early 1990's

there was a smart house project, which created the Finnish concept of a smart

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house. The basic idea was that the longest lasting parts of building like walls,

piping, and mains should be the smartest. This project was implemented in an

office environment.

At about the same time, housing automation was widely introduced, meaning the

control of heating, ventilation, lightning etc. EU's large project ASHoRED in the

beginning of 1990's started a more organized and planned phase in building smart

homes for elderly and disabled people in Finland. Most of the cases in ASHoRED

and its continuation in STAKES' SH program were anyway quite small units. But

these have probably served as example of good practice for other organizations. In

the 1990's there were some ten smart home projects in Finland. About half on

them concentrated more on housing solutions and the rest on modern

communication technology such as video telephones.

Within Finland there are several thousand of private homes for more or less

severely physically disabled people who have individual solutions mainly for

environmental control. These systems are usually realized in the existing normal

housing environment, often in combination with making those homes barrier free.

There are also more institutional kinds of housing units with specialized individual

solutions. There are also organisations that promote the possibilities of people with

disabilities to live within a community in normal environments in independent

homes with the services they need.

In Finland about 15 000 elderly people live in sheltered housing units (about 4%

of 75+). Most of those units were built at the end of 1980's or in 1990's and they

are all more or less 'smart' including systems such as:

• barrier free design

• automatic fire alarm systems, nowadays mostly with address (indicating the

apartment / room, not only the building)

• alarm phone with wrist ban systems opening automatically an audio and two

dimensional connection between the person needing help and the personnel

in or outside the building, in a few buildings the system indicates who and

where (inside the building or in the yard/garden) he/she needs help, the

normal one indicates only who needs help

• automatic light switches (in corridors, at the entrance)

• automatic door opening systems (at the entrance, in public spaces of the

buildings)

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• automatic door controls in dementia units (also in lifts)

• occasionally extra sensors, detectors.

Some ten housing / sheltered housing units for elderly people, built after 1994

were designed especially on a smart house basis. This meant better networks and

extra cabling reservations for future (unknown) needs. In most cases these

reservations have not been used (due to the lack of knowledge and/or time among

the personnel in charge, and of money – of course). Those that are built for people

with physical disabilities include smart environmental control systems.

Within elderly care and senior living in Finland new smart house concepts include

the idea of universal / barrier free design and being prepared for the future with

ready built networks. The development of housing in general will perhaps follow

the principle: broadband access > home portal > digital home > digital living

(what ever it will be). The broadband phase has been reached in several new

"normal" housing projects.

One big problem is the financing: no-one seems to be willing to pay the extra

investment costs – even though important savings could be made in the running

costs. When new houses / apartments are to be built, the investment costs

(EUR/m2) are a very important focus point, and they should not exceed the

"normal" level. This problem concerns especially all housing projects that are

financed by the Housing Fund of Finland (governmental loans for municipalities,

organizations, private people etc) or Finland’s Slot Machine Association RAY

(investment support for non-governmental non-profit organizations).

Living services and technical solutions for people with a disability will always be

"tailor-made" according to the person's needs. The funding in these cases is not

self evident, but not as great a problem as it is within elderly care.

Results

The most important knowledge is gained while actually implementing technology

in the home environment.

Overall conclusions from realized smart home projects:

• No agreement on technical standards

• No agreement on flexible infrastructure

• Not enough skills in installation business

• Installers traditionally from electro technical mono discipline

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• Consumer not aware of possibilities and opportunities

• Human – machine interaction permanently underestimated

• Basic control system relatively expensive

• Full networked and smart houses are still rare

• But current socio-economic and technological drivers will rise an enormous

interest for home automation and electronic services within the next

decades

• Wired or wireless is not the question: wireless will always demand new wire

and a connected world will demand cable for external and internal

infrastructure

• Major barriers for quick introduction are disagreement about internal

infrastructure and failing awareness

• Ageing societies have big needs for home automation and electronic

services, but kids introduce new electronic lifestyles

• Market is technology driven, little user involvement

• Technology is expensive

• Implementation is stuck in the pilot phase

• There is no dominant network, too many standards

• There is a gap between research and actual implementation

• There is a lack of spreading knowledge

• It’s important to develop solutions for existing homes

• Benefits are clear for disabled persons

• Entertainment good starting point on the market, people have an image of

the possibilities

• Communication between all involved parties is essential

• Little practical solutions can have a major impact

• Simple user interface that is adjustable to specific user requirements

• Technical solutions should be inspiring and supporting not making decisions

for the user.

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3.6.2 Research facilities

A comment made about the first steps in the direction of pervasive computing was:

“If these efforts sound a bit outlandish, there’s a good reason: the devices are

solutions in search of a problem [Huang, Ling, Ponnekanti, Fox, 1999].

This way of looking at technological development is changing. There is a belief that

ambient intelligence, but also smart home technology in general, will not be widely

accepted and used, unless users are deeply involved in the shaping of these

technologies [Kidd, 2004]. Developers need to do more than just bring new

technologies to users to ask them what they think. A novel two-way relationship

needs to be established between those that develop new technologies and those

that use them. Users should be integrated into the processes of R&D, and new

product creation and introduction. Users should be part of the innovation process,

a source of ideas, and not just a resource to evaluate ideas generated by

professionals.

All over the world research facilities arise. Hereafter three facilities are described in

more detail. To give a broader overview of existing projects a list of projects and

facilities with websites is included in the appendix.

The Smartest House of The Netherlands, Smart Homes Association

Figure 3.5 The Smartest House of the Netherlands.

The Smartest Home of the Netherlands is an innovating, 160 m2 demonstration

home, with lots of smart technology and home networks. The goal of the home is

to let its visitors experience the possibilities of smart home technology. It was built

in accordance with the latest recommendations for construction of new houses.

Using lasting materials, optimizing the atmosphere and using energy saving

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applications are considered to be smart as well. Above all, the house is flexible and

can be disassembled, which makes it easy to move frequently to different locations

within the Netherlands. The first location was chosen to be in Tilburg. At the

moment the house is located in Amsterdam, its sixth location.

New locations for the “Smartest Home” are carefully chosen by participants and

local governments. Initiated by the Dutch Government and with the cooperation of

parties in the market and social organizations, a location will be equipped with

high quality ICT networks and more electronic services.

The “Smartest Home” of the Netherlands is the successor of the removable ‘Model

home for all Ages’, which was a main information centre from 1994 until 2000.

Initiator of this ‘Model home for all Ages‘ and ‘The Smartest Home of the

Netherlands‘ is the association ’Smart Homes‘ in Eindhoven, the Netherlands.

The German SENTHA project

[Fellbaum & Hampicke, 2006]

SENTHA stands for Everyday Technology for Senior Households. (Seniorengerechte

Technik im häuslichen Alltag). The aim was to improve the living environment of

older persons. The project, financed by the Deutsche Forschungs-gemeinschaft

(DFG), started in 1997 and ended in 2004.

The project SENTHA deals, among others, with the development of outdoor and

indoor communication networks in the personal environment and their

applications. The focus is on the use of new communication facilities (e.g.

videophones), emergency call systems and speech processing devices. Furthermore,

the project investigates internal networks for the control of household

technologies and environmental factors such as light, temperature and air

humidity. The aim was to achieve an optimum adaptation to the needs of older

people.

In the SENTHA project, the TV set was used as the central unit for the control,

analysis and for communication tasks which arise from Smart Home applications.

The idea was to facilitate older peoples’ access to new technologies by using

equipment which is familiar to them and already present in their surroundings,

such as the TV set.

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External Network

Inhouse Network

service

household

environment

appliances

functions

emergency call

alarm

error handling

gateway

tv cable network

• videotelephone

• internet

• online services

safety,

emergency

entertainment

security

call

Figure 3.6 Interconnected residence with multimedia TV as central control unit

[Hampicke, 2000].

Some of the results of the SENTHA project (concerning the smart home aspect) can

be summarized as follows:

• Safety and security play a dominant role. These are, among others:

automatic opening and closing of the windows, alarm set off and

transmission, surveillance of the front door. The same holds for the energy

management, above all, light and heating control

• Education and entertainment (edutainment) are also favourite areas, above

all when the access to information is effectively and senior-friendly designed

• The control of food stocks and tele-shopping (the well-known fridge with

automatic order functions) is of minor interest. Also the automatic order of a

repair service (when devices or systems are defect) is undesirable, because it

is seen as an intervention in the personal independence and most seniors

prefer to leave it under their own responsibility

• With increasing disabilities the willingness for more technical support is also

increasing. Health-related functions (telemonitoring, emergency-call and

others) are becoming dominant and – which is very interesting and

important – also a preference for cultural contents was identified; in the

investigations a strong preference for a virtual visit of a museum was

identified.

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SmartLab, Swedisch Handicap Institute

Figure 3.7 SmartLab.

SmartLab is a resource for testing and assessing in homelike surroundings.

SmartLab can be used as a research environment, where the use of ICT solutions

can be studied. SmartLab is a place for experience and inspiration.

The Swedisch Handicap Institute runs SmartLab to:

• show technology that opens new doors

• show technology that exists, but can’t always be seen

• show applications that put assistive technology into a broader perspective

• and to help give elderly and people with disabilities greater security and

independence in their homes.

SmartLab brings technology into real life. This includes products for:

• Environment control

• Safety in the home

• Care in the home

• Communication with the world around.

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3.7 Challenges

Improving the quality of life for disabled and the increasing proportion of elderly

people is an important task which can be partly accomplished by creating a smart

home environment. Within the Ambient Assisted Living context the contribution

that can be made to this task is described as follows: “Ambient Assisted Living

aims to prolong the time people can live in a decent way in their home by

increasing their autonomy and self-confidence, the discharge of monotonous

everyday activities, to monitor and care for the elderly or ill person, to enhance the

security and to save resources” [European Commission, 2006].

To make sure that a contribution can be made for a longer period of time the home

environment should be able to respond and modify itself continuously according to

its diverse residents and their changeable needs. Furthermore the objective in

design is to provide tools and services that empower and enable people

themselves to address their social, rational, and emotional needs.

Creating smart environments to support elderly and disabled persons has

enormous potential. To live up fully to the expectations is however a complex

process which involves various stakeholders. The challenge is therefore not only to

develop concepts that are technically possible and reliable but to create a concept

that is compiled, supported and accepted by the large group of stakeholders.

The aspects described in this chapter all contribute to reaching this target. The

changes that take place due to technological developments have a huge impact on

life. “ICT does not just enable us to do new things; it shapes how we do them. It

transforms, enriches and becomes an integral part of almost everything we do”

[European Commission, 2006].

A lot of technological developments could create new possibilities for assisted

living. It is a challenge to keep track of all the developments and to combine results

from different technological fields into useful concepts.

The overall conclusion of the evaluation of realized projects is that despite the

shortcomings there is an overall feeling of safety and security among the residents

of the smart home projects. The subjective feeling of mastering one’s own life,

without being dependent on the help of other persons, is an important aspect of

smart home technology, to strengthen one’s self-respect and quality of life.

Until now the main reason to apply smart home technology was to provide the

prior conditions for independent living for elderly people. Every day more people

are realizing that smart home technology can facilitate comfort, communications,

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energy saving, and enhance both personal and building security for everyone.

Real smart homes with all network islands and possible applications are limited to

demonstration houses so far. Home automation has been implemented in

thousands of houses world wide, but is still in its infancy. Several economic and

socio-cultural factors will cause changes in society, which are favourable for a

breakthrough of smart home technology.

Other factors that still account for the slow progress are: c o s t s, lack of

standardisation, problems with the integration and interaction of subsystems and

missing skills at installers. The Internet, broadband and wireless are keywords in an

irreversible move to further introduction of smart home technology. The question is

at which speed of progress. But it is absolutely certain that in the near future all

houses will be connected to the electronic highway. As the logic goes, these houses

will by themselves be smart by networking all devices and equipment in order to

get maximal benefit and fun. The benefit and usefulness has been demonstrated in

homes where older people live.

Currently Ambient Assisted Living markets are still very fragmented and have a

rather low level of maturity. Furthermore, national differences as for organisation

of social care and culture exist [Steg, Strese, Loroff, Hull & Schmidt, 2006].

There also seems to be a lot of knowledge about accessible housing, universal

design or design for all, but less research on related service systems. Service

systems are really context related, related to market, social relations and culture,

and that is why it is more difficult to make generalizations in that area. But there

are some ways to look at possible issues.

Also user involvement is essential in order to make a smart home something where

you can and will live. The user point of view implies also ethical issues, which

include, for example, the person's possibility to control the system, and privacy. It

should be possible for the user to switch the systems on and off and change the

rules according to which they operate.

All proposed requirements are goals. But the real challenge is HOW to achieve

them. It is about measures, which really are context related: some are possible and

function somewhere, others in other places. That is why one could add a

requirement that the smart home is a part of local social systems.

But standardized solutions and procedures are also needed. It is important to look

at how these goals can be financially, legally and organizationally achieved. With

such a consideration and action the goals could become closer.

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In order to achieve goals, the five main orientations in Europe’s ICT research effort

are [European Commission, 2006]:

1. Addressing complexity and the need for a systems approach. The successful

exploitation of these technologies requires the integration in managed

services and solutions to be applied across broadening range of sectors and

markets

2. Fostering interdisciplinarity and synergies. There is a need for stronger

involvement of domain expertise and for greater interaction with other

science and technology disciplines. Thus the range of interactions around ICT

research must be both wider and deeper

3. Creating an open engagement with users. Users should be integrated into

the processes of research and development, and new product creation and

introduction. Users should be at the centre of the innovation process, a

source of ideas, and not just a resource to evaluate ideas generated by

professionals

4. Stimulating the consumption side (services and content). Networks become

service- and application centric and will be visible for the user

5. Focus on value chains and ecosystems. Successful exploitation of ICT

research results requires not just innovative technology but also innovative

business models. While keeping user needs centre-stage, the user focus

needs to be shifted from discrete systems to the value chains of which they

are a part and the societal challenges to which they are applied.

The efforts should lead to ICT that “will enable the creation of systems that are

more intelligent and personalized, and therefore more centred on the user”

[European Commission, 2006]. In the end the user is the key factor in realizing the

goal of improving the quality of life for people with a disability and elderly persons.

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Further information

Overview of research projects and research facilities:

• Adaptive House: http://www.cs.colorado.edu/~mozer/nnh/

• Agent-based Intelligent Reactive Environments (AIRE):

http://aire.csail.mit.edu/

• Ambiente roomware:

http://www.ipsi.fraunhofer.de/ambiente/english/index.html

• AMIGO: http://www.hitech-projects.com/euprojects/amigo/

• AVIARY: http://cvrr.ucsd.edu/aviary/

• The Aware Home: http://www-static.cc.gatech.edu/fce/ahri/

• Changing Places/House_n: http://architecture.mit.edu//house_n/

• Creative Studio Lab:

http://www.francetelecom.com/en/group/rd/activities/vision/customer/studio_

crea.html

• Cybermanor: http://www.cybermanor.com/

• Domolab Ikerlan: http://www.ikerlan.es/pub/ingl/index.htm

• Duke SmartHouse: http://www.smarthouse.duke.edu/

• E-House: http://www.e-house.us/

• Elite Care assisted living facility: http://www.elite-care.com/

• Essex Intelligent Inhabited Environments (IIEG):

http://cswww.essex.ac.uk/intelligent-buildings/index.htm

• Elux House:

http://nweb.waymaker.se/bitonline/2000/09/11/20000911BIT00760/bit0002.

pdf

• Futurelife: http://www.futurelife.ch/

• Gloucester Smart House: http://www.dementia-voice.org.uk/

• Humboldt State CCAT: http://www.humboldt.edu/~ccat/

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• IBM Wired Home: http://www-

306.ibm.com/software/info1/websphere/index.jsp?tab=products/

mobilespeech

• Icepick Technologies: http://www.webcam.nl/

• Inamilab: http://www.hi.mce.uec.ac.jp/~inamilab/en/lab/index.html

• InHaus: http://www.inhaus-zentrum.de/en/index.htm,

http://www.inhaus.de/index_flash2_engl.html

• Intel Proactive health: http://www.intel.com/research/prohealth/

• Intelligent Building Group: http://www.ibgroup.org.uk/index.asp

• Intelligent Home Project:

http://mas.cs.umass.edu/research/ihome/

• Intelligent Space Project:

http://dfs.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~leejooho/ispace/

• Internet Home Alliance: http://www.caba.org/iha/

• Italdesign: http://www.italdesign.it/dinamic/index.html

• Joseph Rountree Foundation Demonstration Project:

http://www.jrf.org.uk/housingandcare/smarthomes/

• MavHome: http://www.uta.edu/

• Medical Automation Research Center:

https://smarthouse.med.virginia.edu/

• Microsoft Easy living: http://research.microsoft.com/easyliving/

• MIT media Laboratory: http://www.media.mit.edu/

• Philips Homelab:

http://www.research.philips.com/technologies/misc/homelab/

• PRIMA: http://www-prima.imag.fr/Prima/

• SENTHA: http://www.sentha.tu-berlin.de/

• Singapore connected home

projects:http://www.ida.gov.sg/idaweb/broadband/infopage.jsp?infopagecate

gory=&infopageid=I2122&versionid=1

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• Smart Homes: http://www.smart-homes.nl/engels/index.html

• Smart Medical Home Research Laboratory:

http://www.futurehealth.rochester.edu/validation/smart_home.html

http://www.futurehealth.rochester.edu/smart_home/

http://www.rochester.edu/pr/Review/V64N3/feature2.html

• Smart Spaces Lab NIST: http://www.nist.gov/smartspace/

• Stanford Interactive Workspaces: http://iwork.stanford.edu/

• Sun Dot Com Home:

http://www.sun.com/smi/Press/sunflash/2000-01/sunflash.20000106.1.xml

• Swindon SmartHouse:

http://archive.thisiswiltshire.co.uk/2005/2/26/92647.html

• Telenor Home of the Future:

http://press.telenor.com/PR/200110/837959_5.html

• TRON Intelligent House:

http://tronweb.super-nova.co.jp/tronintlhouse.html

• Toyota Dream House PAPI:

http://tronweb.super-nova.co.jp/toyotadreamhousepapi.html

1In the literature, reference is made to the same concept but using other terms: for example, “ubiquitous computing” or “pervasive computing”.

2http://www3.who.int/icf/icftemplate.cfm

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people with disabilities

4. Ambient Intelligence and implications for

people with disabilities

4.1 Introduction

Ambient Intelligence (AmI)1 is considered one of the possible instantiations of the

emerging Information Society and a debate is going on about the possible impact

of this emerging environment on the socio-economic integration of all citizens and,

in particular, of older citizens and citizens with disabilities.

As all technological innovations, ambient intelligence is not good or bad per se, but

its impact on people will depend on how it is deployed and used, the time and

scale of deployment and the care devoted to involve people in its development,

taking care of their needs, requirements and preferences (design for all approach).

This chapter is a contribution toward the identification of new opportunities and

challenges for the socio economic integration of older people and people with

disabilities in an AmI environment. It is divided in two parts. The first part, starting

from European development scenarios that describe possible activities to be

carried out in future ambient intelligence environments, aims at anticipating to

what degree and how people with different disabilities will be able to cope with

the foreseen activities. People are considered as “immersed” in the described

environments and a preliminary analysis is carried out about the potential

integration of individuals who cannot see, hear, speak, manipulate objects, move

around or have difficulties with memory, concentration or problem solving. The

second part considers the ethical and legislative issues related to AmI and some of

the technology necessary for its implementation. The discussed problems include

privacy and transparency, product safety, and trust can be cited.

1 In the literature, reference is made to the same concept but using other terms: for example, “ubiquitous computing” or “pervasive computing”.

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people with disabilities

4.2 The ISTAG scenarios: a case study

Margherita Antona, Laura Burzagli, Pier Luigi Emiliani, Constantine Stephanidis

4.2.1 Introduction - The information society

It is commonly accepted that contemporary society is undergoing a fundamental

transition, from the present industrial society towards an information society.

Among the possible embodiments of the emerging information society, an

interesting and widely discussed potential instantiation is the Ambient Intelligence

paradigm. The information society is not seen as being characterised by an

increased diffusion and use of present-day computers and telecommunication

terminals, but as the emergence of an environment in which “people are

surrounded by intelligent intuitive interfaces that are embedded in all kinds of

objects and an environment that is capable of recognising and responding to the

presence of different individuals in a seamless, unobtrusive and often invisible

way” [Ducatel et al., 2001, p.8]. This concept provides a vision of the information

society in which emphasis is put on greater user-friendliness, more efficient support

of services, user-empowerment, and support for human interaction. Interaction is

intended as taking place through “natural” interfaces in the context of an

environment which meets the requirements of being unobtrusive (that is, it

impinges on people’s consciousness only when needed), personalisable, adaptive

to different user needs, and anticipatory (that is, it tries to anticipate user needs).

The emergence and shaping of AmI is currently subject to debate. In order to

produce a structured way for obtaining an impression on how an information

society could emerge, a scenario planning exercise was conducted in Europe in

2000, leading to the publication of the report “Scenarios for Ambient Intelligence

in 2010” [Ducatel, 2001]. In this document, the vision of an information society is

based on ambient intelligence as defined in the previous paragraph. The presented

scenarios offer a view of a potential future, based on anticipated developments in

t e c h n o l o g i e s, s o c i e t y, the economy and networks which are necessary for

implementing an environment in which the scenarios could actually become a

reality. They are not technology forecasts, but descriptions of potential activities to

be carried out in future ambient intelligent environments.

Despite the current limited knowledge on how AmI will materialise, it is commonly

recognised that it is likely to bring about new opportunities for all citizens in the

Information Society, including people with disabilities and older people, but, at the

same time, new challenges for access to computer-based products and services.

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The purpose of the present chapter is to analyse, through the ISTAG (IST Advisory

Group) scenarios, the potential impact and consequences of AmI for people with

activity limitations. This implies analysing how the scenarios would be affected in

the case that their characters would not have all the abilities that are usually taken

for granted for a “typical” user (for example if they cannot see, hear, move

independently, and manipulate objects or they do not have the required cognitive

abilities). An interesting issue to take into account is that, in the case of AmI,

society is not facing the introduction of a new technology, but of an integrated set

of technologies, which are supposed to have a profound impact on the way people

live, work, learn, communicate, socialize and on the performance of everyday

activities. Therefore, an analysis of such an impact should in principle be

multidisciplinary, involving psychological, economic, and sociological aspects.

However, this is outside the scope of this chapter and the expertise of the authors.

The preliminary analysis presented in this chapter is meant to start discussion with

people who are producing the new technology and are influencing its production

at a policy level, according to the Design for All approach.

The analysis is based on some assumptions, which must be made explicit to clarify

the scope of the adopted approach. First of all the scenarios are considered as

“true”, that is, it is taken for granted that the technology and services are available

with the foreseen characteristics. For example, it is assumed that translation

systems are available for all languages, including sign languages. Therefore,

feasibility of technological developments is not considered in the analysis, and

technology is considered at the functional level. The functions are considered as

available irrespective of the real implementation. Second, the AmI environment is

considered as available everywhere, not taking into account that economic factors

could impede a real general deployment of the corresponding technology, Third,

the AmI environment is considered as continuously available (without faults). An

analysis of what could happen in case the last two assumptions do not hold has

been presented in the SWAMI dark scenarios [SWAMI 2006], and applies also to

people with reduced abilities (who have an higher risk of being in the less affluent

part of the society and, therefore, forced not to use the most sophisticated

technology).

Clearly, this approach shows some limitations. It can be considered as rather

incomplete, because it does not consider all user groups, and reductionist, because

the problem has been simplified up to the point to be manageable with the

currently available resources. Moreover, only problems connected with access to

information and interpersonal communications are considered. However, the

results of this analysis are believed to provide a useful starting point for further

investigation, offering some interesting conclusions, which constitute a building

block for the construction of a more complete and holistic picture.

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The Chapter is organised as follows. Section 4.2.2 briefly discusses the ISTAG

Scenarios and the related technologies. Section 4.2.3 introduces some

methodological considerations regarding the performed analysis of scenarios.

Section 4.2.4 discusses AmI technologies from the perspective of the potential

advantages that they can introduce from the point of Assistive Technologies for

disabled and elderly people. Subsequently, sections 4.2.5 and 4.2.6 provide an

analysis, based on the reworked scenarios, of the potential advantages of AmI in

terms of functionality and interaction respectively. Based on the previous

discussions, section 4.2.7 put forwards the need for adopting a Design for All

approach in the development of AmI technologies and of the AmI environment

itself. Finally, section 4.2.8 points out the main challenges that emerge towards

developing AmI environments accessible to, and useful for, all citizens.

4.2.2 ISTAG scenarios and related technology

Four scenarios were produced by ISTAG [Ducatel et al., 2001]. A short summary of

them, pointing out the main activities of the involved characters, is included in this

section in order to support the subsequent discussions. The complete scenarios are

reported in appendix I.

4.2.2.1 The ISTAG scenarios in brief

Scenario 1: Maria - the road warrior

Maria is an employee of a big company who is travelling in a far-away country for

business. She needs to navigate in an unknown environment (airport, city), to live

and work in hotel rooms, to be supported in her business presentation, and to be

in contact with her family and home environment. She is supported by a personal

communicator, which is continuously in connection with the AmI environment,

including the airport, the traffic guidance system in the city and the hotel room. The

AmI system knows where she is located and is able to connect her not only with

the surrounding environment, but also with any place in the world. The emphasis

is on the seamless and intuitive support while moving around. Maria, thanks to

AmI, can concentrate on the purpose of her trip without taking care of details, but

still remaining always in control of the situation.

Scenario 2: Dimitrios - the digital me (D-Me)

Dimitrios is an employee of a multinational company. His main problem is to be

connected continuously with people, even during the coffee break in which the

scenario takes place, but without being disturbed if not really necessary. His

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communication agent, which learns from Dimitrios’ way of dealing with different

situations, is able to conduct most of his communications on his behalf, taking

decisions on his behalf and speaking with his voice. When contacted by his wife

about their child’s homework, in order to find information about everyday life in

another country (Egypt), a videoconference with a girl in Egypt, made possible by

real-time translated conversation, is used to solve the problem. This scenario

emphasises mainly the intelligence in the environment, which can capture, process

and share information about human beings, and the expansion of human

relationships. Interconnected D-Mes create networks, which allow people to be

defended from outside interference and create new contacts and relationships.

Scenario 3: Carmen - traffic, sustainability and commerce

Carmen lives in a city where many services are available for taking care of everyday

problems. She lives in an intelligent house that is interconnected with the network,

and has access to an e-commerce system facilitating the purchase of everyday life

goods. A shared-car system is available for her to go to work. This is part of the city

system, which takes care of following her during travel and gives advice regarding

traffic. The city can also regulate the behaviour of the vehicle, when necessary. In

the scenario, the main emphasis is on an efficient and user friendly urban

environment, through the use of very large-scale systems and services.

Scenario 4: Annette and Solomon - environment for social learning

Annette and Solomon are in an environment that is able to adapt itself to the

needs of different learning groups and individuals with different ages, knowledge

and interests about problems of environmental management. The environment can

restructure itself also physically, offering, when necessary, interaction “islands” for

different groups (the islands are virtual islands, where sound and visual spaces are

confined) and very advanced presentation facilities (e. g . , 3D hologra p h i c

rendering). Contents, presentation speed, and complexity are controlled by AmI.

The environment is aimed at the establishment of social relations in continuous

interaction with the individuals. The scenario deals mainly with the empowerment

of users in a learning environment and with the support of social processes,

through the use of a communication network and a collective memory.

4.2.2.2 Key enabling technologies for AmI

From a technological perspective, the following ‘Key Enabling Technologies’

covering a broad range of ICT and smart material technologies, are considered as

a basis for the emergence of an intelligent environment:

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• Embedded Intelligence

• Middleware and distributed systems

• IP mobile and wireless

• Multi-domain network management

• Converging core and access networks

• Micro and opto-electronics

• Trust and confidence enabling tools

• Cross-media content

• Multi-modal and adaptive interfaces

• Multi-lingual dialogue mode.

Finally, the following requirements are considered as crucial for the development

of technology concurring to the implementation of the AmI environment.

Requirement 1: Very unobtrusive hardware

Miniaturisation is assumed to produce the necessary enabling developments in

micro and optical electronics. Molecular and atomic manipulation techniques will

give rise to advanced and smart materials and nanotechnologies. In addition, the

following are required: s e l f - g e n e rating power and micro-power usage;

breakthroughs in input/output systems including new displays, smart surfaces,

paints and films that have smart properties; sensors and actuators integrated with

interface systems in order to respond to user senses, posture and environment;

smart materials that can change their characteristics and/or performance by stand

alone intelligence or by networked interaction (e.g., smart clothing).

Design emphasis is supposed to be on human factors, so that the widespread

embedding of computers produces a coherent AmI landscape, rather than just a

proliferation of electronic devices.

Requirement 2: Seamless mobile/fixed web-based

communications infrastructure

Complex heterogeneous networks need to function and to communicate in a

seamless and interoperable way. This implies a complete integration of mobile and

fixed networks. To deliver the full AmI vision (e.g., the 3-D real-time holographic

rendering in the Annette and Solomon scenario) there will eventually be a need to

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move towards ultrafast optical processing in the fixed network. These networks will

have to be seamless and dynamically reconfigurable. They will require more

advanced techniques for dynamic network management (see Requirement 3).

Requirement 3: Dynamic and massively distributed

device networks

The AmI landscape is a world in which there are almost uncountable interoperating

devices. Some will be wired, some wireless, many will be mobile, many more will

be fixed. The requirement will be that the networks should be configurable on an

ad hoc basis according to a specific, perhaps short-lived, task, with variable actors

and components. D a t a b a s e s, whether centralised or distributed, should be

accessible on demand from anywhere in the system. This implies: new computer

and communications architectures, new systems software that can adapt to

changing hardware configurations, the development of networked embedded

intelligence and distributed data management and storage systems. Key to this

aspect of AmI will be the development of middleware and agent technologies

(Requirement 4).

Requirement 4: Natural human interfaces

A central challenge of AmI is to create systems that are intuitive in use. This will

need ‘artificial intelligence’ techniques especially dialogue-based and goal

orientated negotiation systems as the basis for intelligent agents and real time

middleware that can operate across domains to very general levels. These

techniques will be equally important for developing intuitive machine to machine

interaction, which are supposed to be multimodal (multi-user, multilingual, multi-

channel and multipurpose) using speech, gesture, and pattern recognition. It

should also be adaptive to user requirements providing context sensitive

interfaces, information filtering and presentation, and cross-media content.

In the scenarios, voice, gesture and automatic identification and localisation are

implicitly used to synchronise systems, so that services are available on tap when

people require them.

Requirement 5: Dependability and security

The AmI-world must be safe, dependable and secure, considering all physical and

psychological threats that the technologies might imply and giving important

emphasis on the requirement for robust and dependable software systems

components.

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4.2.3 Methodological considerations

In the ISTAG scenarios, the deployment of innovative technology is reported, and

possible activities to be carried out in the resulting intelligent environment are

described. A fundamental problem is to consider how people are able to perform

the foreseen activities, according to their abilities in the AmI environment, defined

as the combination of the physical environment, the network, its data bases, etc.

Living in the environment includes the use of general purpose services and local

interactions. This is important for all potential users, but crucial for people who

have limitations in some of the required abilities. For example, in the scenarios it is

taken for granted that people can see screens, hear speech and sounds, and speak.

Several approaches can be chosen to draw conclusions about the level of

integration of people with different activity limitations. The first is to construct new

specific scenarios for these target groups, trying to describe situations which

identify new opportunities offered by the integrated use of AmI technology, and

emphasise potential problems. A second approach is to modify the ISTAG scenarios

in order to adapt them to the needs of people with different activity limitations.

Both approaches have their advantages and could lead to interesting results, in

terms of identifying examples of integration or segregation of people in the

emerging information society.

Instead, as previously stated, a mainstreaming approach was chosen, whereby

characters with different activity limitations are introduced in the ISTAG scenarios,

identifying how they can carry out necessary activities in such an environment. This

is made possible by the fact that one of the interesting new characteristics of the

ISTAG scenario exercise is that the user appears at the centre of interest, adopting

a holistic, citizen-centred view [IST Advisory Group, 2003]. This is also shown by

the approach used in investigating future developments. Instead of starting from

new technology and trying to figure out how this can be used to implement new

services and applications, the analysis starts from application scenarios that

exemplify at the activity level the use of different aspects of the intelligent

environment.

What is considered important is that, in the formation of the scenarios, people -

and not technology - are at the forefront of the information society. The scenarios

do not make explicit reference to people with activity limitations; however, as they

are mainly based on activities in defined contexts, they lend themselves to an easy

analysis of the possibility of access to these activities by persons with different

characteristics.

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The approach is also in line with the one at the basis of the preparation of the new

WHO “International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF)”2,

where a balance is sought between a purely medical and a purely social approach

to the identifications of problems and opportunities for people in their social

integration.

When dealing with the problems of people who experience some degree of activity

limitation or participation restrictions, “ICF uses the term disability to denote a

multidimensional phenomenon resulting from the interaction between people and

their physical and social environment” [WHO, 2001]. This is very important,

because it allows grouping and analysis of limitations that are not only due to

impairments. For example, people are not able to see because they are blind, or

have fixation problems due to spastic cerebral palsy, or are in a place with

insufficient illumination, or are driving and therefore cannot use their eyes for

interacting with an information system.

People may have impairments, activity limitations or participation restrictions that

characterise their ability (capacity) to execute a task or an action (activity), but their

performance is influenced by the current environment. The latter can increase the

performance level over the capacity level (and therefore is considered a facilitator)

or can reduce the performance below the capacity level (thus being considered as

a barrier).

The purpose of the work presented in this chapter is to analyse how people

perform in the situations foreseen in the AmI environment to characterise it as a

facilitator in the required activities, or as a barrier, hopefully also pointing out

possible ways to overcome such a barrier. For this purpose, ISTAG scenarios are

divided into activities, and some user groups having activity limitations are

“virtually observed” while performing the corresponding necessary tasks.

In order to structure the work, tables have been constructed with several rows

(activities) and four columns: (1) an ISTAG scenario fragment describing an activity

or a set of related activities, (2) problems (barriers), and (3) possible solutions and

(4) AmI opportunities (increase in performance). An example is given in appendix

II, where for presentational reasons, the activities of column 1 come under the

heading “original scenario” (in black) and columns 2, 3 and come under the

headings “problems”, Possible solutions and AmI opportunities respectively (in

colour). The comments in the columns are clustered and used to draw conclusions

at a general level. Obviously, starting from the comments in columns 3 and 4,

ISTAG scenarios, modified to take into account problems of people with activity

limitations, can be produced.

2 http://www3.who.int/icf/icftemplate.cfm

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Due the enormous variability of the possible individual impairments, activity

limitations or participation restrictions and the number of necessary activities to be

carried out for a satisfactory integration in the information society, it is impossible

to analyse all possible combinations corresponding to the ICF classification.

Therefore, a set of examples are worked out, using some typical profiles concerning

activity limitations in connection with the activities foreseen in the ISTAG scenarios.

Five different user groups were considered. The first two groups address people

with sensorial limitations (also caused by contextual factors), and precisely people

who cannot see at all and people who cannot hear at all. The third group addresses

people with mild or moderate limitations in memory, language, orientation and

problem solving (cognitive limitations), mainly made up of older people. Cognitive

resources are crucial for successful and independent living. Cognition comprises

human information processing functions and domains that allow people to access

and maintain knowledge. Relevant domains are, for example, memory, language,

orientation and problem solving. Impairments of cognitive functions such as recall

and recognition (e.g., the ability to identify faces, objects and events), attention,

learning and executive control processes interfere with daily functioning and

severely degrade the quality of life. The prevalence of pathological cognitive

changes increases with age. Its most prominent form, dementia, can render the

affected subjects incapable of taking care of themselves. Less severe forms of

cognitive impairments are classified as age-associated memory impairment (AAMI)

or mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Regardless of severity, cognitive impairments

result in diminution of social contact, leading to social exclusion, loneliness and

depression. In the scenarios reference is mainly made to people who have mild or

moderate memory, language, orientation and problem solving problems that

normally do not impede their independent living, suitably supported. Then, people

with manipulation problems (that is control of fine manipulation operations

necessary in the use of a keyboard or a mouse), fixation problems and/or

difficulties in expressing themselves using voice (e.g. caused by spastic cerebral

palsy) are considered. In the discussion, only problems related to access to

information and interpersonal communication are considered. Therefore, it is

assumed that people considered in the analysis are able to move around without

using a wheelchair. Finally, people moving in a wheelchair are considered, dealing

only with their problems of access to information and interpersonal

communication.

It has been previously said that, for the purposes of the performed analysis, the

ISTAG scenarios have been used in their original form. This must not been

considered literally, because some changes have been introduced to make them

credible, particularly in the case of cognitive limitations. For example, it is very

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unlikely that an older person acts as a “road warrior”. Therefore, Maria in the

specific scenario is a tourist going to a foreign country and living in a hotel. She is

not supposed to give a presentation. Correspondingly, Carmen, in the revised

scenario, does not go to the city to work, but to visit a friend.

4.2.4 New technology, systems and services

Traditionally, the problem of integration of people with activity limitations has been

tackled through an adaptation approach, whereby systems and services are

adapted after development to the needs of different user groups and/or the

abilities of people are augmented with the use of assistive technologies. In section

4.2.7, the limitations of this approach will be discussed, particularly with reference

to the new technological developments, advocating a new approach, namely the

design for all approach.

However, before delving in the general analysis of the scenarios, it is useful to

comment briefly on some of the technologies that are anticipated to emerge, and

their integration in systems and services from the perspective of the users and in

relation to assistive technology. The aim of this discussion is to provide hints on the

possible smooth transition from the present situation and AmI. As a matter of fact,

some emerging technologies can offer interesting possibilities for improvements in

assistive technology in the short and medium terms, aiming in the long term at a

confluence of concepts developed in the assistive technology environment in the

development of mainstream technology.

In looking back at the efforts to produce interfaces to computers and terminals

adapted for people with disabilities, the technology necessary in order to support

an intelligent environment seems to have much to offer.

One of the main prerequisites of the intelligent environment is that interactions

must be multimodal and alternative input-output systems must be available. In

principle, the different modalities can be used concurrently so as to increase the

quantity of information made available or, alternatively, to present the same

information in different contexts, or, redundantly, to address different interaction

channels, both to reinforce a particular piece of information or to cater for the

different abilities of users. Voice synthesis and recognition can be considered as a

simple example. For recognition, the set goal is the recognition of connected

speech in noisy environments. This can obviously be very important in producing

efficient inputs for people who cannot use keyboards or object manipulation

techniques due to activity or contextual limitations. C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y, v o i c e

synthesis is anticipated not only to achieve better quality, but also to incorporate

personal characteristics (in the Dimitrios scenario, his network agent is able to

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speak with his voice). From the perspective of people who have problems in

speaking, this should make possible the implementation of speech prostheses

using a voice chosen by the user. Another design target is the development of

automatic translation up to the point of being used in real-time conversation

between people speaking different languages. Even if, at least in an initial phase,

this will be probably possible only in limited communication contexts, the related

technology can eventually be extended to the translation between non-

conventional languages (for example, speech to Bliss symbols and vice versa).

Input prediction, which was initially developed in the disability area and is now

widely used for writing SMSs in GSM telephones, will be extended, with obvious

advantages for the group of people for whom it was initially developed.

Special vibrating materials for alerting people are considered important, and will

increase the efficiency of many alarm systems that have previously been used by

people who cannot receive messages using auditory signals. These developments

are also related to the study of materials capable of sensing touch or producing

tactile presentations of information. These technologies, which were initially

developed for virtual reality systems in order to sense force information or to

emulate interaction with objects, are progressively acquiring importance in many

different environments, including not only in touch screens, but also in systems

capable of transducing information into a tactile presentation. Moreover, tactile

presentation of information should also be three-dimensional: that is, materials

capable of reproducing three-dimensional forms in real time are being sought. This

might make the present transitory Braille displays obsolete, because any output

tactile screen could be capable of reproducing Braille. It could also be an answer

to the need of people who cannot see to access graphical and pictorial

information.

GPS and other localisation systems are likely to become standard in many pieces

of equipment and services. This will solve the problem of tracing people who risk

being lost in open spaces, and will help in navigation (e.g., for people who cannot

see). GPS localisation should be integrated by the deployment of networks of

sensors [Estrin, 2002; Lorincz, 2004], e.g. based on ultrasound beacons, floor

sensors to determine the positions and movements of individuals, weight sensors,

worn badges that emit IR pulses, and smart tags to identify objects.

Smart tags are another important technology necessary for the development of an

intelligent environment. They can signal the presence of objects in the

environment, and can provide detailed information about the objects to which they

are attached. In the Carmen scenario, they are used to give Carmen information

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about what is contained in the refrigerator, and to produce the list of goods to be

bought in the supermarket, which is directly transmitted by the refrigerator itself.

This technology could have a number of very important applications for people

with disabilities. A person who cannot see, equipped with a simple radio transducer

could be directly informed about the items on the shelves of a supermarket. For

each object, s/he could have information about weight, expiring date, composition,

and so on. At home, the same person could be able to locate all kinds of small

objects, for example a box of pills or spectacles, and when necessary, have

information about the medicament and the dosage. The pill box could also be

authorised to make the person aware of its presence, if s/he tends to forget about

medication. The tags on objects in the house could be used as a means to help

elderly or people with memory problems by making available, when necessary,

information concerning their presence and use.

Gesture recognition [Geer, 2004] is an additional important component of a new

generation of systems for people with activity limitations. It can be used both to

implement virtual keyboards on any surface and virtual pointing devices, and to

produce interfaces for the manipulation of objects on the screen, as it is now

possible with computer games. The traditional switches used by people with

manipulation limitations to activate controls or to interact with computers could

become virtual switches. The mouse could become a virtual mouse, whose

movements can be controlled through movements in space of any predefined form,

using a TV camera and appropriate image processing algorithms or mio-electric

signals [Wheeler, 2 0 0 3 ] . O t h e r, more sophisticated interfaces can also be

conceived, such as interfaces based on the recognition of lip movements and their

“transduction” into text. Sign-language interfaces could be implemented with the

use of gesture recognition. Correspondingly, animation technology developed for

game or film production can be used to produce good-quality avatars that are able

to sign or to move lips for lip reading.

Visualisation technologies are considered of paramount importance [Abowd,

2002]. The idea is that screens should be available everywhere. Any surface in the

environment could be easily transformed into a screen. New materials are under

study to produce screens that are lightweight and foldable, thus making possible

visual presentation systems that follow the user while moving (nomadicity and

availability). Alternatively, the presentation screen could be virtual, using projection

systems, and the presentation of 3-D information should be possible.

The importance of concepts and technologies related to intelligent agents also

needs to be emphasised. People in the information society will be represented by

different digital agents which will sometimes be disembodied representations of

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the individuals; at other times, they will be visual and audio representations

(avatars). At a lower level, these should be able to explore the network in order to

extract information of interest. At a higher level, they will represent users in

negotiations with people and other agents. For example, in the Maria scenario, her

agent negotiates to have a rented car at a reduced price, to obtain a discounted

permit to enter the city centre where cars are allowed only on the basis of

payment, and to book a parking place in the hotel. In Dimitrios’ scenario, D-Me, an

intelligent agent which represents the owner (not visually, but speaking with his

voice), is allowed to negotiate with a person in asking help for a medical problem

(the agent decides to follow an impersonal strategy, without revealing the identity

of the person represented) and with Dimitrios’ wife. Obviously, in the latter case,

the agent rightly loses and allows direct communication with Dimitrios on the basis

of the “ e m o t i o n ” it can feel in the woman’s voice (based on emotion

understanding approaches). This technology - with obvious problems of privacy

and control for the user - is very promising in different situations. People who

cannot see can be supported by agents able to access visual information for them

and to “transduce” information produced by them into visual form for sighted

people. The same is true for people who cannot hear regarding accessing and

producing auditory information. An intelligent agent could also take care of

helping people with cognitive difficulties due to disability or age in acquiring

information from the environment, and could anticipate their needs for

communication and environmental control.

Lastly, a common requirement of new technology is miniaturisation. Many

technologies are conceived as hand-held or wearable, taking also advantage of the

fact that intelligence can be embedded in the environment in order to support the

individual personal system. This means being light-weight, which can be important

for some people and in some environments, but also availability. It is taken for

granted that people can have with them everything necessary for performing even

complex tasks. An example is Maria, whose only technological item (sufficient for

carrying out navigation, environmental control and making a complex business

presentation) is a personal communicator that she wears as a wrist bracelet.

From the above, some conclusions can be drawn about general characteristics of

systems and services in the intelligent environment. Systems and services are

nomadic, that is, they follow people. The basic system for accessing communication

or information is personal (a personal communicator). It is simply a portable

interface with the infrastructure where the intelligence resides. It is small,

wearable, and also implantable, as well as personalisable as much as is it

necessary. Consequently, digital services are ubiquitous in the environment,

wherever and whenever people need them, and there is no need to look for

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terminals, as terminals are always with people. Additionally, the infrastructure can

help people to navigate and find objects in the environment (for example,

medications, etc).

4.2.5 The environment as a general facilitator

So far, as already mentioned, the integration of people with activity limitations has

been based on some complementary approaches: adaptation of systems

addressing the needs of individual user groups (e.g., human computer interfaces),

adaptation of services of general use (e.g., alarm services), and creation of special

services (e.g., relay services).

Some interesting conclusions can be drawn from the scenarios, with reference to

services available in the environment. In order to simplify the discussion, this

section addresses issues related to the environment’s foreseen functionality,

envisaging how it can potentially impact on integration, while section 4.2.6 deals

with issues related to interaction.

4.2.5.1 Environmental control systems

First of all, environmental control systems, introduced for the independent living of

persons with motor disabilities, become an integral part of the living environment.

Probably, the environment will not be equipped by default with robot-type systems

useful for taking care of certain needs of people with motor disabilities, for such as

feeding them or moving them around. However, it will be able to integrate this

additional technology if it is has been designed in such a way as to be extendable

to incorporate additional facilities (either for general purposes, e.g., robotic

systems, or for specialised support, e.g., assistive technologies).

4.2.5.2 Relay services

Another type of service (relay services) of interest for people who cannot hear/and

or speak is available by default in the Ambient Intelligence environment, where

voice recognition and synthesis, automatic translation, gesture recognition (sign

language and lip reading) and animation (synthetic sign language and lips

movements) are ava i l a b l e. Relay services may be a default facility if the

environment is developed following with a design for all approach (see section

4.2.7). Alternatively, a personal communicator, such as the one described in the

Dimitrios’ scenario, can be used as a personal relay service.

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4.2.5.3 Agent-based information, communication

and negotiation services

The real winning factor is the intelligence in the environment (intelligent agents).

To plan her travel, Maria relies on an environment populated by agents (the

intelligence in the environment), which can look for relevant information and

negotiate on her behalf to get what she needs at the best possible prize. Another

agent helps her in localising her presentation according to local preferences (colour

schemes, the use of language). This possibility, of interest to everybody, can be

crucial for people who have some hearing or speech problems that can reduce

interpersonal communication or sight and manipulation problems that can reduce

efficiency in accessing complex information services. The possibility of delegating

to an agent the transactions needed for organising a trip abroad can also be crucial

for an older person with cognitive limitations. The same holds for the Carmen

scenario, where agent-based support systems help her in organising the travel to

the city using a car pooling system and in her e-shopping activities. This can be

useful not only to help Carmen when she is really unable to perform required tasks,

but also to reduce stress. In the negotiation for travel arrangements to the city, the

agent knows the needs of Carmen (for example she is travelling in a wheelchair)

and can fine tune the choice of a suitable car and driver. In e-shopping the agent

can look for the information which is useful for the user and present it in the

suitable form. If Carmen can see, the goods on the supermarket shelf can be shown

on a screen. If Carmen cannot see, or has fixation problems, the agent can read

information on the intelligent tags attached to each item. If Carmen has cognitive

limitations, it may be that she needs guidance through the required actions. The

level of support by AmI can be matched to the severity of Carmen’s problems. In

cases of mild cognitive problems, AmI can remind and provide suggestions, just like

a friend in the house (for example, Carmen is reminded that she will have guests

for dinner and is suggested a selection of menus extracted from her known

preferences). In case of more severe problems, AmI can completely control the

situation: preparing a balanced diet for Carmen based on past habits, checking the

availability of food, ordering it, caring for its delivery at home, and suggesting all

the steps necessary for its preparation. Obviously, it can also supervise the

preparation of food from a security perspective. This can be done autonomously or

in cooperation with a relative or carer. The level of control by Carmen can be set at

any possible or desired level.

The Dimitrios scenario is completely about an agent (avatar), called D-Me, that

takes care as far as possible of his communication with the outside world, and can

manages services (e.g., choosing the best telecommunication means for Dimitrios’

child). Before being overridden by Dimitrios’ wife, who is able to pass through the

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D-Me barrier, D-Me is able to deal with routine calls, facilitating him if he has

sensorial or speech problems that reduce his communication capabilities, avoiding

the use of complex interfaces. If Dimitrios has cognitive problems, b e i n g

continuously in contact can be very useful. His D-Me can overcome some of his

problems with memory and problem solving. Automatic learning can improve in

the long term the agent’s adaptation to Dimitrios’ behaviour, and assist with the

short term fluctuations of his capabilities. Moreover, in social contacts mediated by

telecommunication, where Dimitrios is directly interacting with other people, D-Me

can try to overcome Dimitrios’ cognitive problems, if present, by dealing with

complex tasks, interactions and problem solving functions. It can also hide other

activity limitations (e.g., sensorial) of Dimitrios, who is apparently performing in a

“normal” way. Only when Dimitrios is communicating with his wife or in other

situations that need his personal intervention his limitations are exposed.

4.2.5.4 Navigation services

When arriving at her destination, Maria is connected with the environment that

guides her through the customs and to the taxi, and then in her navigation through

the city. Navigation systems and services are an integral part of the intelligent

environment, and can be useful in many circumstances. They are present or can be

used in all scenarios for different purposes. If Maria is not able to see, the P-Com

in communication with AmI guides her through the airport (e.g., by voice, or using

haptic cues). This requires the knowledge of her position in the airport (granted by

AmI) and the possibility of controlling the presence of unpredictable obstacles

(people, baggage, etc.), obtainable through the use of features of the AmI itself

( e. g . , a control system able to monitor tagged objects in real time and

communicate with the P-com of passengers). If Maria has cognitive limitations, the

navigation system may tune the level of support to the known abilities or to the

perceived present difficulties (for example, Maria may be confused by the crowd in

the airport). Dimitrios and Annette, if unable to see, need navigation help in the

cafeteria and in the room where learning activities are taking place. Even if the two

environments are reconfigurable, it is reasonable to think that AmI knows the

position of all potential obstacles (e.g., by reading RFID on objects or through

direct optical inspection by pattern recognition), and is able to guide them.

Carmen, while moving towards the meeting point with the car driver, may need to

be reminded the route to follow, as well as help for orientation. The car is part of

a very complex navigation and traffic control system. Carmen does not interact

directly with the system, but the system knows her characteristics and is able to

suggest a reasonable alternative when she needs to leave the car and use an

alternative transportation system. For example, the UAN (Underground Network

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Area) registers Carmen as a client who cannot see and suggests routes and paths

that are not too busy at that point, so she can manage to be at work on time.

Alternatively, The UAN registers Carmen as an older client. It connects with the

control centre to verify whether Carmen may be allowed to travel alone with the

metro or she must be assisted. If she can travel alone, the P-com takes care of

guiding her through the space and advising her about the tasks necessary for

arriving to her friend’s house. The level of support can be easily tuned to Carmen’s

capabilities (probably changing in time). If Carmen is moving around on a

wheelchair, AmI can suggest an accessible route to destination. When Carmen

must meet with the driver, if she cannot see, it may be that unexpected obstacles

are on her way. AmI can advice her, but it is more likely that she relies on her

virtual3 or real dog. If she has cognitive problems, AmI can guide her to the meeting

point.

4.2.5.5 Learning activities

The space where the Annette and Solomon scenario is located, as well as the

organisation of the learning activities, are particularly interesting from the

perspective of people with activity limitations. A first very important feature of the

environment is its possibility of being tailored physically (organization of space and

availability of multimedia support) and conceptually (type of learning material,

speed of presentation) to individual users. Moreover, there is a mix of social

exchanges (with other learners, the mentor and external experts) that can be of

invaluable help for this user group. The mentor himself is not an expert in the topics

to be learned, but a mediator between different interests and needs. Not only the

efficiency of learning is addressed, but also the emotions of individuals and groups.

A continuous support is granted by AmI that is able to adapt to the users and to

their emotional states.

From a technical perspective, the cooperation of the personal communicator with

AmI can allow the structuring of the environment to allow easy physical navigation

by all the potential users. For example, the space can be arranged to allow a person

on a wheelchair to move around without any problem. Moreover, the possibility of

creating virtual spaces allows the optimisation of each working place for the

individual user or a group of users with different capabilities. Different user groups

can interact with the system and people can use the approaches already described

in the previous example to interact with other people and access information.

3 A virtual dog is set of sensors (e.g., a worn T.V. camera, or some type of ultrasound or laser) able to spot obstacles.

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4.2.5.6 Alarm and support/control services

The entire AmI is a pervasive and very sophisticated alarm and support/control

system. This may be very important for people with cognitive problems. AmI can

continuously control Maria’s behaviour in the various environments according to

her known habits and intervene if necessary, for example reminding her of tasks

and helping her perform them. When necessary, AmI can also contact the family or

a carer for advice and help. If Maria cannot see AmI is able, if necessary, to describe

its layout and functionalities, as well as the functionalities of its devices (e.g., the

remote control of the hotel room). Moreover, since Maria cannot do two acoustic

activities simultaneously, AmI is able to organize sequentially the flow of

information and the performance of the necessary tasks, allocating the necessary

time. In the Dimitrios scenario, D-Me can be part of a control system, in continuous

contact with relatives or helpers. In the Carmen scenario, the P-com can transmit

the news that Carmen is leaving home to a control centre or to a relative. A

continuous connection can then be established, and Carmen can be tracked during

her trip. Moreover, the micro-payment system frees Carmen from financial

transactions. On the way home, the shared car system senses a bike on a dedicated

lane approaching an intersection on their route. The driver is alerted and the

system anyway gives preference to bikes, so a potential accident is avoided. The

same service could be very useful for a person who is on a wheelchair and for a

person who cannot see. This can also be an invaluable help for Carmen when going

around alone. If the system becomes aware of Carmen’s problems, for example

evident confusion in finding her way and problems in coping with the environment,

it can connect with a relative or a control centre. The connection can be granted by

Carmen’s P-com without infringement of her privacy. A complex situation also

arises when Carmen must leave the car to use a public transportation service.

However, the navigation system takes care of that, and a support/control system

can intervene if she has particular problems or has a reduction in cognitive

capacities.

4.2.5.7 Broadband communication facilities

The additional opportunities offered by AmI are related to the availability of

broadband communication facilities. Maria’ scenario offers a presentation of

advanced telecommunication facilities, in the car, in the hotel room and in the

presentation room. When Maria is driving, she is tracked by the navigation system

and people know (if she wants) that she can be contacted. If she is contacted in a

difficult situation and she does not want to answer, a D-Me type agent can deal

with the calls when they are not considered important or advice that she should

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call back as soon as possible. In the hotel room there is an audio/video system, the

video scenes of which are described if she cannot see, and automatically

captioned, if she cannot hear. The audio/video system can be used also for

communication with her daughter, with whom she can not only communicate, but

also go through the news as they watch them at the same time from different

environments. Obviously, if she cannot see, she listens to the news, while if she

cannot hear she can read the news, which is automatically captioned.

Conversation with her daughter takes place through AmI and the P-Com (relay

service).

4.2.5.8 Audio/video interpersonal communication services

The fact that Maria and her daughter are able to converse on an audio/video

system and cooperatively access information, is very important from two different

perspectives. The first is that it introduces a remote socialisation component, which

can be crucial to reduce stress, and through which Maria can be supported. Even

if support by technology can be of invaluable value in some circumstances, support

by other people can be more efficient and acceptable in some situations and

activities. It can introduce a personal dimension, which increases acceptability and

efficiency in the intervention. AmI, with its emphasis on cooperative activities,

whereby people can remotely carry out common activities with audio and visual

contact, can increase the feasibility of the approach. When people are not able to

perform some actions, they can ask a relative, a friend or a support organisation.

Maria, for example, if she cannot see, can show the hotel room to her daughter

and get from her a personalised description that a computer system would had

probably given in a functional form. If Maria knows that she has left an object

somewhere in the room, her daughter can localise it. If Maria has cognitive

problems, her daughter can instruct her when performing difficult tasks. In this

case the advantage is reciprocal, because the daughter can “control” that

everything is all right without being too intrusive.

The same applies to the tasks related to the localisation of the presentation. If

Maria does not trust the suggestion made by the localisation agent and she cannot

see them, she can easily connect with a colleague in the office and ask for advice.

4.2.6 The individual interacting with the environment

After having examined the possible impact of services of general use on people

who have some activity limitation, it is necessary to focus on the individual user

and consider interaction with AmI in order to perform the tasks necessary to be

integrated, at home, in closed spaces (e.g., the airport, the hotel, the cafeteria, and

the learning environment), as well as in open spaces.

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It is clear that the main key to open the doors of the information society is the

personal communicator and the related set of agents, which are able to grant

connection to the environment itself and to all its facilities for accessing

information and interpersonal communication. Its characteristics are not precisely

defined. It does not have a specifically defined interface, but it can in principle

make available all the interaction technologies described in the previous sections

in order to adapt the environment to the type of interaction suitable for the user

and the context of use, for example, audio when eyes are necessary for other tasks

(for driving in the Maria’s scenario), or visual or tactile in noisy environments. It is

very likely that the interface is not part of the communicator itself, but of the

environment. The communicator is a disembodied functionality supported by the

ambient intelligence with different interfaces. Maria wears it as a bracelet. In the

case of Dimitrios, the communicator (D-Me) is embedded in his clothes but can be

also implantable. It is adaptive, and learns from Dimitrios’ interactions with the

environment. It offers communication, processing and decision-making functions.

Its functions may either be based on on-board intelligence or on distributed

intelligence in the infrastructure. Both ways, it offers Dimitrios the necessary

services. It deals with calls. When necessary, it becomes an avatar-like system and

deals with most of his social communication, using his own voice. In the Carmen

scenario, the communicator does not have a specific embodiment. It is a function,

enabling contacts with other persons (for example, her host driver in the shared

vehicle service) or with services (for example, the supermarket information system

or the city payment system). There are some characteristics of the communicator

important for all people: it is personal, lightweight, wearable, and continuously

available.

Finally, it is interesting to observe that the personal communicator must not

necessarily be a highly sophisticated piece of equipment, the performances of

which are limited by size, weight, and power. The intelligence necessary to support

the transduction of information necessary to address the different modalities and

to support the user can be in the environment and in the network. The same is true

for the complex interaction peripherals. In principle, the only limiting factor can be

bandwidth.

Taking into account that all the characters in the scenarios have with them a

personal communicator, it is interesting to discuss how they can interact with AmI

in the information society if they have some activity limitations.

The simplest situation is at home or in other closed environments (e.g., the hotel

room), because personal spaces are easier to personalise to the needs of different

users, even if, as shown in the previous section, the distinction between close and

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open environments in AmI is blurred due to the ubiquitous deployment of

functions. Carmen interacts with her fridge. If she is not able to see, she can receive

audio messages. If she is not able to speak at all, she can use gesture recognition

or text, and if she is not able to speak perfectly the voice recognition system can

be trained to match the characteristics of the produced audio signal. Output can

be given in any modality matching to the capabilities of the user. For example,

when Carmen is connected to the shop, all the information stored in tags is

translated in a properly encoded format for her to receive. Carmen may choose to

see the goods of interest or hear or read (e.g., in Braille) brief descriptions of them,

or to have a full presentation of a particular product or store shelf. Presentations

may contain information about the product characteristics (size, colour, and

weight), the packing, the price, potential offers or alternative selections and other

information that will help her to make her choice. Carmen’s P-workstation enables

her to explore and manipulate 3D models and artefacts by means of tactile

interaction.

The same approach can be used in communication with the car driver, who can

have been made aware of Carmen’s abilities, and thus use the most appropriate

communication channel. Alternatively, the driver’s and Carmen communicators can

cooperate to transduce the information in a suitable modality.

The situation is more complex when a private but not personal space (e.g., the

hotel room) is used. Even if the room is adapted to Maria’s personality as she

enters, i.e., the room temperature, default lighting and a range of video and music

choices are displayed on the video wall according to her preferences, interaction

with the room can pose some problems. Obviously, interaction with the room for

adjusting features to the varying needs of its inhabitant can be solved using the

same methodology used at home for interacting with the fridge, but some

difficulties remain. The first is that Maria may have problems with the room itself,

if she cannot see or has some cognitive problems. In this case, a description of the

room and its facilities may be provided by AmI. If cognitive problems are present,

the number and complexity of facilities to be made available can be chosen

according to Maria’s profile. If necessary, the room can make all choices

automatically. Otherwise, suggestions can be offered by relatives or carers.

Similar problems can be experienced with the remote control of the room, if Maria

cannot see, or she cannot manipulate it or understand its functioning. A first

efficient solution to the problem is for Maria to use her P-Com, which obviously

can be programmed to mimic any remote control. Support by personal equipment

well known by the user is very important, because the same approach can be used

in different environments, without the need of learning new interaction styles and

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patterns of presentation of information each time. However, this is due not only to

the use of adapted equipment, but also to its integration with AmI. Alternatively,

AmI can describe to Maria the layout and the functionalities of the remote control

available in the room, and its functions can be simplified according to her

characteristics and preferences

In the Maria’s scenario, she gives a presentation. If she cannot see, she needs to

know who is in the room, when she can start her presentation, and how to control

the pace of the presentation. The P-Coms communicate and exchange the

information on who is attending the meeting. She gets a multi-modal confirmation

(voice through earphone plus vibrator) that the presentation is ready for display.

There is a tactile display in the room or she can use her personal tactile display. The

tactile display has a copy of the presentation plus additional control functions

(active functions), pointing facilities and control of slide content details. In AmI, the

wide availability of tactile displays is part of the built-in virtual reality interfaces.

Otherwise the presentation can be controlled using a gesture recognition system.

If Maria is not able to hear, but is able to speak, she does not have problems for

the presentation. Otherwise she can use a speech synthesizer (see Dimitrios

scenario). During the discussion, a speech recognition system is used. She can type

answers to be read or synthesised. Alternatively, she can use sign language,

translated into voice in real time.

Dimitrios’ physical environment is not described in any way. It is the only scenario

in which some incongruence is present. Dimitrios has a very advanced D-Me

system, that according to the script is “equipped with voice, pattern and patch

recognition capacity. It has to identify places and people, but also to register

enough data to record the relevant events of Dimitrios’ life to process it in its D-

Me profile and offer it to other D-Me’s”. Then, in AmI there is an abundance of

screens (real and virtual) and audio communication channels. Any surface, in

principle, can become a screen, both because of the smart material of which it is

made and because images are projected on it. But when Dimitrios needs to speak

with his wife, he has to move to a displayphone, a device coming from the

prehistory of telecommunications. However, such a displayphone can use all the

capabilities of AmI. If Dimitrios cannot see, the displayphone is able to describe any

drawing eventually present on the screen. On the other hand, if Dimitrios cannot

hear, it can convert his wife’s voice into text. It is obviously able to convert sign-

language to voice (probably supported by the D-Me, in this case playing an

ancillary role) or can be used as a simple text telephone. Correspondingly, the

output of a speech recogniser can be translated to lip movements and/or sign

languages. If Dimitrios cannot speak and does not know sign language, he can use

a (virtual) keyboard and a prediction system. If Dimitrios has cognitive problems,

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the displayphone can adapt itself to his preferences and mimic the functionalities

and interface of a system he is normally using. The complexity of the displayphone

(functions, tasks to be carried out to use it, etc.) can be matched to Dimitrios’

capabilities. Support is automatically given if necessary.

Interactive simulation and projection facilities are enhanced not only regarding

technical performance (for example 3D presentations), but also regarding their

capability of adaptation to the needs of the users, both guiding them through the

tasks needed for presentation and tailoring performance to the complexity of the

required presentation. Nowadays, interactive simulation systems are inherently

based on interaction paradigms using direct manipulation of objects and on

complex (also three-dimensional) visual presentations. In the AmI environment, the

system will have evolved to be multimedia and multimodal. For example, a possible

solution for a person who cannot see could be the evolution toward a virtual reality

system based on sound and tactile interactions (tactile exploration of virtual

objects both for input and output of data). The new technology developed for the

implementation of the intelligent environment (e.g., tactile display technology,

virtual reality, tactile input technology) can contribute to an easier access to

information by people who cannot see.

When Maria arrives in the airport of a far away country, she is relieved of the fact

that she can travel with hand baggage only, because everything she needs for

interacting with the information and communication environment is the P-Com.

She does not need any computer or terminal. Computing power is available

everywhere, along with suitable peripherals for interacting with it. Even if not all

the people going around need complex systems as the ones necessary to Maria for

giving her business presentation, any simplification in the type and complexity of

necessary devices can be particularly useful for many user groups (for example,

people with spastic cerebral palsy and people moving in a wheelchair).

However, some people may prefer a personalised system. For example, if Maria

cannot see, her P-com can be equipped with a specialised interface (e.g., a foldable

tactile interface). Even if tactile presentations are in principle available for all users,

she prefers to carry her own device so as to avoid potential problems during her

trip. When necessary, the P-com can communicate with sophisticated peripherals

(e.g., a tactile 3-D system) available in the environment. When going through the

airport, she can be guided by the environment to avoid unexpected obstacles (for

example a piece of baggage left unattended). Alternatively she can use a personal

system (e.g., a virtual guide dog). RFID on objects can be used for signalling the

presence of obstacles to the virtual guide dog.

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When navigating in the airport, if Maria cannot see or has fixation problems,

information is conveyed using the speech channel of the P-Com, whereas, if she

cannot hear, information is presented through text or maps (for example, on a

visual display embedded in her spectacles). If Maria has cognitive problems, the

single tasks to be performed can be conveyed though her preferred modality and

explained in details. If necessary, she can be put under control of a relative or a

service centre to follow her way through the airport and help and reassure her if

she has difficulties.

4.2.7 Design for All in the context of AmI

It is commonly accepted, also officially in political European documents [European

Council, 2000; i2010], that the emerging information society will have to be

universally accessible to all citizens. These include people who have functional,

sensorial or cognitive limitations due to disabilities or age. In the same documents,

explicit reference is made to the need of developing the new society (in terms of

technology as well as services and applications) using a Design for All approach.

Within the context of Universal A c c e s s, Design for All has a broad and

multidisciplinary connotation, and refers to the design of interactive products,

services and applications that are suitable for most of their potential users without

the need for any modification [Stephanidis, 1 9 9 8 ] , [ S t e p h a n i d i s, 1 9 9 9 ] ,

[Stephanidis, 2001].

This change of paradigm, as compared with the Assistive Technology approach,

which is based on the adaptation - on behalf of people with disabilities - of

systems and services produced for the general market, is often criticized on the

basis of various arguments. In particular, there is a line of argumentation raising

the concern that “many ideas that are supposed to be good for everybody aren’t

good for anybody” [Lewis& Rieman, 1994 - Section 2.1, Paragraph 3]. However,

Design for All in the context of Information Society Technologies is not to be

conceived as an effort to advance a single solution for everybody, but as a user-

centred approach to providing products that can automatically address the

possible range of human abilities, s k i l l s, requirements and preferences.

Consequently, the outcome of the design process is not intended to be a

“singular” design, but a design space populated with appropriate alternatives,

together with the rationale underlying each alternative, and critical property of

i n t e ractive artifacts becomes their capability for intelligent adaptation and

personalisation. Clearly, in a complex and dynamically evolving technological

environment such as AmI, accessibility and usability by users with different

characteristics and requirements cannot be addressed once the main building

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components of the new environment are in place. Instead, the need arises for more

proactive approaches, such as Design for All, which can optimally exploit the

adaptation and personalisation capabilities built-in in the environment.

In such a context, therefore the concepts of Universal Access and Design for All

acquire critical importance towards streamlining accessibility into the new

technological environment through generic solutions, and the requirement

emerges of redefining the role and scope of assistive technologies in the new

environment emerges [Emiliani & Stephanidis, 2005].

The point made in this chapter is that the two approaches can be considered as

complementary and converging towards the creation of a more accessible

information society through the continuous redefinition of problems in accordance

with the developments of both fields, with the overall objective of producing

barrier-free technologies. Complementarity and convergence are intended both at

a specific and at a general level. At a specific level, individual characteristics of

users are so varied that it will be very difficult, (if not impossible, to actually

integrate the requirements of all individuals within the specifications of new

products and services, and therefore Assistive Technologies are necessary for

specific cases. At a general level the lessons learned in Assistive Technology will be

fundamental in shaping the new environment. The integration of the two

approaches will make the use of Assistive Technology in Design for A l l

environments simpler and more effective.

The emerging situation can thus be addressed through an evolutionary approach.

In the shorter term, the development of ambient intelligence can be supported by

a technology which enhances the possibilities offered by Assistive Technology,

merging in the medium term into systems and services and, in the long term, into

an intelligent environment, which has the potential of being usable by most users

if their needs are taken into account proactively during the design phase. Through

such an evolutionary approach, Design for All emerges not as an abstract

methodology, but as a necessary and efficient approach for maximising the

potential advantages of introducing new technologies, and for minimising inherent

risks of the increasing exclusion and segregation of specific groups of people. The

effectiveness of this approach is essentially due to the fundamental fact that the

core of the Design for All approach combines user-centeredness with automatic

adaptation and personalisation.

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4.2.8 Emerging challenges

In reading the previous sections, one could be led to conclude that the information

society offers a panacea for the problems of people with disabilities. However,

before arriving at such a conclusion, some challenges need to be addressed.

The first challenge is related to the intelligence that is considered as an integral

part of the emerging environment. Considering the current state of the art in

Artificial Intelligence, it is clear that significant improvements are needed in order

to realize the environment foreseen in the ISTAG scenarios. For example, even if

speech recognition and speech synthesis are improving, the introduction of

intonation in synthetic speech, the recognition of speech outside specialist

domains, and the translation between different languages require fundamental

improvements in the semantic interpretation of messages. The same is true for

those aspects of the intelligent environment that are related to people’s emotions

or difficulties in executing tasks. Obviously, without fundamental improvements

with respect to present possibilities, the environment could interfere in the life of

citizens in unacceptable and negative ways.

Second, it must be considered that the analysis presented above is related only to

problems of access to information and communication and to other activities that

can be supported by improving the possibility of being integrated into the

information and communication community. This will obviously not solve all the

problems of people, and in any case needs a proactive Design for All approach in

order to take full advantage of new possibilities. For example, having speech

synthesis or transitory Braille displays as a standard feature of the environment

does not automatically mean that all information will be available to people who

cannot see, because this will depend on how the information is stored and

structured. Since it is clearly impossible to adapt all the databases connected to the

network, it will be necessary to use a Design for All approach (for example, the WAI

guidelines) to represent information in a form that is amenable to a “transduction”

using text (speech or Braille). But this is not sufficient. For example, if information

about accessibility is not available in a hotel database, no guideline regarding the

representation of information and no adaptation will help.

This applies to the development of all the technologies foreseen in the scenarios,

which must have embedded all the characteristics necessary for the integration of

all potential users. Gesture recognition is considered as a very important

technology, but additional research efforts are necessary in order to be able to

extract information from a spastic movement. Speech recognition can be very

important for interfacing with the environment for people who cannot use a

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keyboard or a pointing device, but the training system must be robust enough to

accept not only “standard” voices, but, for example, voices of people with cerebral

palsy.

Translation between different languages has the potential of eliminating the

barrier among different countries, languages and cultures, but, obviously, the level

of integration will depend on the languages that are considered. For example,

different sign languages and symbolic languages (such as Bliss) will need to be

part of the set of considered languages.

Many other aspects of the development of an intelligent environment must be

discussed as to their impact on the population at large and on people with

disabilities in particular. First of all, it is necessary to investigate how human

functions will be engaged in the emerging forms of interaction and how this

interaction will affect individual perceptive and cognitive spaces. The emerging

environment will be very complex and stimulating, from both a sensorial and

cognitive perspective. It is not clear whether people will be able to cope with the

hyper-stimulation and the corresponding cognitive load. This is particularly true for

people with reduced abilities, and principally for people with cognitive limitations.

The environment must be developed in such a way that the capabilities of people

are taken into account, for example, in order to balance the distribution of tasks

between the user and the intelligent environment itself.

This introduces another very important aspect. The acceptance of the new

environment by the citizens will also depend on their trust in it and, therefore, on

their level of acceptance of delegation. This may be a particularly sensitive point for

people with disabilities, who might need to delegate more than other users and

have additional problems in conceptualising the situation. Th e r e f o r e, t h e

environment must both incorporate all the adaptation and personalisation facilities

needed by all the groups of potential users, as well as provide to users the

possibility to really understand the facilities available and the implications of

delegating certain tasks to the intelligent environment.

Impact on emotion, vigilance, information processing and memory must be

considered with particular attention when people with disabilities are involved. On

a lower level, it is necessary to avoid forms of interaction that may lead to negative

consequences such as confusion, cognitive overload, and frustration. This, for

example, requires a distribution of input/output facilities in the environment that is

continuous, in order not to create frustration or confusion, flexible, so as to adapt

itself to the different contexts of use, and coherent throughout the environment.

This is a particularly important characteristic, because the fact that the interaction

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maintains an internal coherence in every situation will obviously facilitate

interaction and favour acceptance. It is also important, when different modalities

and, therefore, different sensorial channels, are used. It is essential that the

requirements of users with disabilities are taken into account, because the

optimisation of information transfer is more critical for them.

Another challenge involves privacy and security. The possibility of adapting the

environment to different types of users requires the availability of information

about them. In the case of people with disabilities, this information may be very

sensitive. It is therefore of paramount importance that users can trust the privacy

guaranteed by the system. Privacy has always been a very important problem in

any control system. The problem is made more sensitive now by the fact that the

control will not be effected by a dedicated system, but by an omnipresent

intelligent environment.

Lastly, security is another very import aspect. The intelligent environment, including

also the support infrastructure, is a very complex system. It has recently been

demonstrated that complex systems are prone to collapse (electrical blackouts due

to the collapse of the distribution system are a well-known example). This could be

very dangerous if human society is organised around a complex information and

communication system such as the one envisaged in the AmI scenarios. This has

particularly importance for people with disabilities, who will rely more heavily on

the available facilities. Therefore, backup strategies, redundancy and error checking

facilities will have to be available in the system and must be understandable by end

users.

4.2.9 Conclusions

From the preliminary analysis of the possible impact of the development of the

Information Society as an Ambient Intelligence environments, it seems that if the

new technology is developed and deployed taking on board the needs,

requirements and preferences of all potential users, i.e., all the citizens of the

emerging Information Society, and if ethical problems are taken into account, the

emerging situation could be an opportunity for favouring socio-economic

integration.

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References

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DUCATEL K., BOGDANOWICZ M., SCAPOLO F., LEIJTEN J., BURGELMAN J-C.,

(2001). ISTAG - Scenarios for Ambient Intelligence in 2010 – Retrieved February

24, 2005 from http://www.cordis.lu/ist/istag.htm

EMILIANI, P.-L., & STEPHANIDIS, C., (2005). Universal Access to Ambient

Intelligence Environments: Opportunities and Challenges for People with

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world with pervasive Networks, IEEE Pervasive Computing, 1 (1), 59-69.

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V., MAINLAND G., WELSH M., MOULTON S., (2004). Sensor Networks for

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WHEELER K., JORGENSEN C., (2003). Gestures as Input: Neuroelectric Joysticks

and Keyboards, IEEE Pervasive Computing, 2(2), 56-61.

Stephanidis C. (ed.) (2001). User Interfaces for All – Concepts, Methods and

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STEPHANIDIS C., SALVENDY, G., AKOUMIANAKIS, D., BEVAN, N., BREWER, J.,

EMILIANI, P.L., GALETSAS, A., HAATAJA, S., IAKOVIDIS, I., JACKO, J., JENKINS, P.,

KARSHMER, A., KORN, P., MARCUS, A., MURPHY, H., STARY, C., VANDERHEIDEN,

G., WEBER, G., & ZIEGLER, J., (1998). Toward an Information Society for All: An

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STEPHANIDIS, C., SALVENDY, G., AKOUMIANAKIS, D., ARNOLD, A., BEVAN, N.,

DARDAILLER, D., EMILIANI, P-L., IAKOVIDIS, I., JENKINS, P., KARSHMER, A.,

KORN, P., MARCUS, A., MURPHY, H., OPPERMANN, C., STARY, C., TAMURA, H.,

TSCHELIGI, M., UEDA, H., WEBER, G., & ZIEGLER, J., (1999). Toward an

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4.3 Ethical and legislative issues with regard to Ambient

Intelligence

Erkki Kemppainen, Julio Abascal, Bob Allen, Sabine Delaitre, Chiara Giovannini,

Mathijs Soede

4.3.1 Introduction

The scenarios discussed by COST 219ter demonstrate the potential benefits of the

development of Ambient Intelligence (AmI) for people with disabilities (see

sections 4.1 & 4.2). They show how the technology can assist people with

disabilities in their day to day living, allowing more access to services and

information than ever before through the interaction with their environment and

the automation of tasks. However, these advances bring with them their own

difficulties, for example, with the storage of personal information and the ethical

issues that arise from the automation of tasks.

Where AmI means for many of us an increased comfort and better and faster

functioning, the same issues can mean for people with disabilities a passing of a

threshold between dependency (much need for human care support) and

autonomous living. We could speak of enhanced leverage in case of a disability.

For example, firstly, people with a cognitive disability or any impairment related to

mental and intellectual functioning might have great benefits from AmI. Travel

support is one of the examples where AmI can assist in coping with a chaotic

society. Secondly, smart homes while giving new possibilities for environment

control can provide more independent living at home.

Thirdly, (human) care needed for daily living is, for people with disabilities, a matter

of making them more dependent on human will and the costs can be relative high

when compared with technological support. It is sometimes seen as a

disadvantage that the human aspect in delivering care is then reduced as

technology plays a greater role. This might be re-addressed as a design effort

where AmI provides care functions in a user friendly and effective way. Fourthly,

mental and physical health are closely related and the potential of AmI is to

motivate and stimulate people to enhance their functionality and their way of

coping with society. Based on intelligent analyses, AmI will stimulate people into

learning and rehabilitation within the scope of their abilities. Fifthly, what all

people need, and people with a disability even more so is secure and safe living.

Telemedicine (often referred to as tele-monitoring) offers many possibilities for

disabled and chronically ill persons as it is implemented in AmI surroundings.

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The organisation of those AmI services is costly and needs a high level of common

infrastructure. Thus it is expected that AmI will have opportunities for a rapid

innovation and development when the larger institutions (social security, funds,

hospitals, commercial companies etc.) include it in their future policy.

From a consumer point of view, the most relevant AmI scenario is represented by

the concept of a smart house (see chapter 3) which is the combination of three

elements: home automation, a communications network and intelligent control.

Provided that consumer aspects are properly addressed, this can mean increased

safety, comfort, convenience, security and energy savings for most groups of

consumers, including elderly people and people with disabilities.

But there are also risks. Dark scenarios have been analysed in depth by Safeguards

in a World of Ambient Intelligence (SWAMI) project. SWAMI scenarios are ‘dark’

since they include applications that go wrong or do not work as expected with the

aim of highlighting the vulnerabilities and weaknesses and likely adverse impacts.

Four dark scenarios have been elaborated around two axes that encompass both

individual and societal concerns, on the one hand, and private and public concerns,

on the other hand.

All citizens should have equal rights to benefit from the new opportunities that

AmI technologies will offer (equal rights and opportunities). This will promote the

removal of direct and indirect discrimination, will also foster access to services and

encourage targeted actions in favour of under-represented groups, such as people

with disabilities and older persons.

In the following section some important issues with regard to Ambient Intelligence

are discussed either from an ethical or legal point of view.

4.3.2 Access to terminal equipment and services

Accessibility is a fundamental requirement for technology from a human point of

view. Applications of AmI can mean access to society, for example to transport,

housing, working life and communication. Technologically, accessibility relates to

user interfaces. With regard to AmI it is even more important than with regard to

individual devices, because AmI can be the kind of system and a network where

one cannot choose to be in or out.

Access to control devices and control is a key issue from the point of view of the

individual. It concerns, for example, various personal devices, or in the field of

services, alarm call services.

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Therefore, accessibility is required in order to support the inclusive participation

(user acceptance), awareness and learning of users. Thus, this point may embrace

different sub points, such as equal rights and opportunities, usability (vs.

complexity), training/education and dependability.

Usability will promote system design according to a user-centric approach. Better

usability will then support easy learning (i.e. learning by observation), user control

and efficiency, thus increasing satisfaction and, consequently, user acceptance.

Training/education will promote education programmes to learn how to use new

technologies and will increase the user awareness about the different possibilities

and choices offered by AmI technologies and associated devices. This action is

useful to increase the feeling of control and the awareness on the possible uses

and consequences of the technology, thus reducing any misunderstanding on how

the technology works.

The dependability challenges are to be addressed by an effective implementation

of AmI technologies by taking into account both technical constraints and

harmonized human-machine interfaces. Technical constraints are for example the

scale and pervasiveness of applications/services and volume of components,

heterogeneity of technologies and diversity of life cycles, intelligence and

autonomy. The harmonized human-machine interface mainly encompasses the

compatibility between technology and human systems and the technology-push in

terms of social impact. Thus, dependability is essential in order to address almost

all facets of dependency leading to exclusion or discrimination.

A relevant field which is covered by legislation is telecommunications. Central to

the legal framework are the telecommunications directives, especially the Directive

on Radio and Telecommunication Terminals (RTTE) (see section 5.1).. However, for

the time being, standardization is a more important tool in the promotion of

accessibility. Standardization has a lot to say about control devices, which act as a

link between a person and ambient intelligence.

Another often quoted important piece of legislation is the Universal Service

Directive which states in relation to the a universal service in Article 3 in Chapter

II that Member States shall ensure that the services set out in this Chapter are

made available at the quality specified to all end-users in their territory,

independently of geographical location, and, in the light of specific national

c o n d i t i o n s, at an affordable price. The Chapter, entitled 'Universal service

obligations including social obligations', covers the provision of access at a fixed

location, directory enquiry services and directories, public pay telephones and

special measures for disabled users. Special measures to be used by Member States

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are to be targeted to ensure access to and affordability of publicly available

telephone services, including access to emergency services, directory enquiry

services and directories.

Aml could represent an entirely new way of using electrical installations,

appliances and communication services, in a way that consumers are

unaccustomed and unfamiliar with. If the technology is difficult for consumers to

operate and maintain, some consumers will be disadvantaged, i.e. will not be able

to enjoy the potential benefits (energy savings, integrated alarms, etc.) offered by

the system. The groups, such as elderly people and people with disabilities, that

might gain the most benefit from such systems, might not be able to operate them.

Different groups of consumers may achieve different benefits (e.g. people with

physical disabilities can use remote control to operate all devices in the home, as

opposed to having to move to individual devices round the home to control them).

So it is important that different consumer needs are addressed by Design for All

principles.

When considering products and services that relate to the Information Society,

then the term e-Accessibility is sometimes used to mean the integration of all users

i.e. older people, people with disabilities and also people placed in impairing

environments. This will only come about as a result of designing mainstream

products and services to be accessible by as broad a range of users as possible.

4.3.3 Privacy and transparency

Is AmI watching you? It is a form of monitoring. It is collecting information. It is not

only collecting pieces of information, but it is creating configurations of

information.

Profiling activities are essential in order to achieve the objectives of delivery of

services in an AmI environment. Profiling activities require a seamless collection

and processing of a broad range of data from numerous sources which are related

to a user’s identity, his/her activities, characteristics and preferences in specific

contexts.

In general profiling in AmI facilitates applications of interest to society enhancing

social inclusion or enabling services making the everyday life easier. However,

several social issues are stemming from profiling in AmI. The main issues related to

privacy are:

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• Erosion of privacy: right balance between security and privacy. Profiling

activity requires some monitoring or surveillance of the users for the

detection of physical activity for example. Monitoring and surveillance may

erode privacy. Perhaps most people view privacy as a right that can be

sacrificed, at least to some extent, if it leads to greater security

• Erosion of individual liberties. Indeed, profiles can limit freedom of choice of

users by confining them within the limited set of options on offer by the

providers. Profiles tend to govern opaque decisions about individuals

concerning their access to services, such as obtaining credit or a position

• Inadequate profiling caused by privacy invasion. Problems of inadequate

profiling can occur with regard to two main situations: attribution conflicts

in case of numerous users leading to misinterpretations of users’ needs.

However, some problems may stem from malicious actions (i.e. a kind of

privacy invasion). Inadequate profiling may lead to discrimination, exclusion

and victimisation.

Individual persons want to know what personal information is stored, and why.

They want to know whether the information is to be transferred somewhere, and

who will be permitted to use it, and who will not. Another issue concerns how long

information will be stored within systems. The questions are geared to what other

people are allowed to know about you.

One of the great benefits of AmI is its versatility, and the many uses that the same

information can have in interacting with indoor and outdoor environments. While

the information will be obtained fairly, will it be possible to use the information for

one single purpose, especially when it may have to be shared among a wide range

of other ‘trusted’ networks? If the data is replicated, will all the data be kept up to

date? It is possible to see someone’s physical requirements changing due to a

debilitating disease, but this change not being notified to parts of the extended

network. Retaining information ‘as long as necessary’ will almost certainly be

irrelevant, as the data will be used indefinitely on a day to day basis. One of the

great challenges faced by AmI won’t be technical, it will be the ability to abide by

these guidelines.

What is privacy protection? Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights

and Fundamental Freedoms (1950) states that all persons have the right of respect

for their private and family life, their home and their correspondence. There shall

be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such

as in accordance with the law and as is necessary in a democratic society in the

interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the

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country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or

morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.

In the field of Information Society, European Union law includes the Directive on

the processing of personal data, the Directive on the protection of privacy and the

processing of personal data in the telecommunications sector and Directive

concerning the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the

electronic communications sector. In addition, there is detailed national legislation

in the Member States.

Article 8 the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights (2000) summarizes important

principles:

1. Everyone has the right to the protection of personal data concerning him

or her

2. Such data must be processed fairly for specified purposes and on the basis

of the consent of the person concerned or some other legitimate basis laid

down by law. Everyone has the right of access to data which has been

collected concerning him or her, and the right to have it rectified

3. Compliance with these rules shall be subject to control by an independent

authority.

Each European country has its own implementation of the EU directive on privacy

and personal information, but they conform to the principles of the protection of

data, fairness in processing the data, and access to the data held about them.

Ireland’s data protection guidelines are fairly typical, and are cited here to give an

example of the difficulties that AmI faces:

1. Obtain and process information fairly

2. Keep it only for one or more specified, explicit and lawful purposes

3. Use and disclose it only in ways compatible with these purposes

4. Keep it safe and secure

5. Keep it accurate, complete and up-to-date

6. Ensure that it is adequate, relevant and not excessive

7. Retain it for no longer than is necessary for the purpose or purposes

8. Give a copy of his/her personal data to that individual, on request.

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Hence, many interests are involved in the transfer of information. It is the task of

legislation to balance these interests. The complexity of interests reveals that the

legislation is also complicated.

It is the role of legislation to provide common solutions to ethical issues and

conflicts of interests and to prescribe confidentiality or public access. A s

mentioned, with regard to AmI, many sectors of legislation can be relevant. Mail

and telephone calls, but also health and social sectors are traditionally important

fields.

Privacy in public electronic networks is protected by legislation. The Privacy and

Electronic Communications Directive ensures that the protection of confidentiality

is guaranteed for all forms of private communications over public electronic

networks. Confidentiality is the main focus (Article 5). There are also legitimate

reasons for having exceptions. A very specific example can be found in the field of

telecommunications. Where the calling-line identification (CLI) is offered, the user

must have the possibility of preventing CLI (Article 8). However, it is justified to

override the suppression of CLI and location data in the case of emergency calls

(Article 10 (b)).

This example shows that in different situations there are really different and

sometimes conflicting interests. It is in fact one of the fundamental ideas of law

that it balances different interests, with principles and rules. Hence, laws do not

only have to link to ethics, but contribute to the functioning of a society.

The information profile of a person monitored within an ambient intelligent system

can itself direct ambient intelligence and it should also be possible for a person in

turn to control the profile. This leads to a moral requirement: It should be possible

for persons to control and make choices concerning the functioning of ambient

intelligence, e.g. concerning their own profiles or the system's operation. This is an

implication of the moral principle of autonomy.

Those are the difficulties posed through the authorised use of the system. But what

about the unauthorised access? Identity theft is already common on the internet.

AmI works through the use of wireless technology, meaning that all information

has to be broadcast. A worrying possibility is that someone may breach the security

system, capture these details, and use them elsewhere. Careful design of the

system becomes essential.

Although there are many difficulties with the adoption of AmI with regard to

privacy and ethics, these problems are not insurmountable. In order to protect the

privacy of the individual, a secure system for the broadcast of information is

required.

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Adherence to the data protection guidelines needs to be made explicit in the

development of AmI systems. This would mean that a ‘specified explicit purpose’

can be agreed upon, that only the relevant information is stored or transmitted by

the system. A regular review of the information needs to be built in, in order to

ensure that information about a person is accurate, and to give the person an

opportunity to request the removal of information from the system as required.

Critical data entering or leaving the system, for example via the smart house

gateway, should be secure. The electronic system should ensure that filtering of

incoming data (e.g. from the Internet) meets the consumers’ requirement. The

electronic system should ensure that critical outgoing data (e.g. credit card details,

personal medical data and information related to personal security) is secure and

adequately encrypted.

Privacy is the interest that individuals have in sustaining a 'personal space', free

from interference by other people and organisations. It is an interest that has

several dimensions:

• privacy of the person. This is concerned with the integrity of the individual's

body. Issues include compulsory immunisation, blood transfusion without

consent, compulsory provision of samples of body fluids and body tissue,

and compulsory sterilisation

• privacy of personal behaviour. This relates to all aspects of behaviour, but

especially to sensitive matters, such as sexual preferences and habits,

political activities and religious practices, both in private and in public places

• privacy of personal communications. Individuals claim an interest in being

able to communicate among themselves, using various media, without

routine monitoring of their communications by other persons or

organisations

• privacy of personal data. Individuals claim that data about themselves should

not be automatically available to other individuals and organisations, and,

even where data is possessed by another party, the individual must be able

to exercise a substantial degree of control over that data and its use.

4.3.4 Product safety

What if something goes wrong? Who is behind ambient intelligence? Who can I

contact if the system is not working?

A possible answer can be found in product liability. According to European

legislation, a product is deemed safe once it conforms to specific Community

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p r o v i s i o n s, national regulations or certain principles. The general safety

requirement is imposed by the Directive on general product safety on any product

put on the market for consumers or likely to be used by them, including all products

that provide a service.

A product is deemed safe once it conforms to the specific Community provisions

governing its safety. In the absence of such provisions, the product's compliance is

determined in certain other ways.

Obligations have been laid on manufactures and distributors. The manufacturers

must put on the market products that comply with the general safety requirement.

They must also provide consumers with necessary information. Distributors are

obliged to supply products that comply with general safety requirements, to

monitor the safety of products on the market, and to provide the necessary

documents to ensure that the products can be traced. If the manufacturers or

distributors discover that a product is dangerous, they must notify the competent

authorities, and if necessary, co-operate with them.

The Members States put in place structures that are responsible for monitoring a

product's compliance with safety requirements and taking the necessary measures

in this regard, e.g. prohibiting products that fail to comply from being marketed.

The Member States can take restrictive measures by informing the Commission,

which communicates the information to the other Member States.

There is also legislation on specific sectors. The Low Voltage Directive seeks to

ensure that electrical equipment within certain voltage limits provides a high level

of protection for European citizens.

Beyond these legal requirements there are also moral requirements. U s e r

involvement is important for the development of good products but it also has

value in itself. It builds up trust in the production process. Products should

correspond to the needs of users. Users themselves are the best experts in that. But

in complicated technologies user involvement is not an easy task. There are

methods for user involvement, but perhaps even more effort should be put to the

development and dissemination of these methodologies.

Producers should thus listen to consumers. In addition to this co-operation,

consumers have some other opportunities. They can make their choice in the

market.

For the electrical and mechanical safety of appliances and home automation there

are three situations to consider:

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• The inherent safety of the device as a stand-alone appliance or application.

This is covered by the existing safety standards [CENELEC EN 60335-1: safety

of domestic appliances (Low voltage directive)] and in many cases the

device would be considered as an “unattended” appliance. (Note, those

standards contain a clause that exclude the use of domestic appliances by

“children and infirm people without supervision”. This is contested by

consumers associations and could be a problem in smart house

standardisation for the “caring” aspects of smart houses)

• The safety of the device when used as a stand-alone automatic or re m o t e l y

c o n t rolled application, but not as an integral part of a smart house. Here the

safety mechanisms and detection systems have to be built into the device

• The safety of the device when controlled and operated as an integral part of

the system. In this situation the safety mechanisms may be those of the

house itself.

This means that safety requirements in AmI may have to go beyond those required

by the existing safety standards called up by current EU directives.

In addition to the above issues, consumers are also concerned with Electro

Magnetic Compatibility issues that can affect compatibility. To comply with the EU

directives [Directive 89/336/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the Member

States relating to electromagnetic compatibility and RTTE Directive 1999/5]

individual components have the “CE” mark to show compliance. Consumers will

be reassured if they know that EMC could also be guaranteed for the whole AmI

system, not just the component parts, this principal is not always addressed by the

existing EMC standards. Many components in a system will be used in close

proximity to each other and radio devices may share frequency bands. The EMC

directive and standards do not always address close proximity use. Some

components such as heart pacemakers, wheelchairs and other medical equipment

will require special attention in this respect.

From a consumer’s view, AmI technical solutions should be based on open

standards; otherwise companies controlling the infrastructure will dictate the

preconditions. In reality, the cost and complexity of such systems will inevitably

result in a number of proprietary systems together with a degree of commercial

vertical integration. Consumers may therefore find themselves financially or

physically ‘tied-in” to a system. Interoperability standards must exist to ensure

consumers can change their system or service via the home ‘gateway’ without

major redesign and appliance replacement or loss of functionality or safety.

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4.3.5 Market

Who pays? This is always an important question. As ambient intelligence can refer

to so many areas of application, like smart homes, environment control, monitoring

systems, traffic information, etc., it is not possible to give an answer here. The point

here is that this is an important question which should be made transparent.

In the market there is supply and demand. There is design, manufacturing, selling,

buying, using. In many cases ambient intelligence is a very complicated product. In

addition to ordinary roles in the market, AmI may add a challenge to mastering the

whole system.

In addition to the question of getting money, there is a question that how the

money is used. Public procurement describes a system how money is used. There

is European legislation in regard to public procurement. Ensuring sufficient quality

criteria in public procurement is also in the interests of the end-user.

There is a further dimension. An individual product, for example a walking aid,

requires adjustment and maintenance. What is important for the user is not the

product alone but the service where arranging a product for use is an essential

part.

Hence, when thinking of AmI as a product, it can be arranged by the service

provider and in the end it is financed by the user, via the price of a product or user

fees or taxes. Some systems can be based on public financing as a part of a public

infrastructure, e.g. traffic information. In some cases assistive devices can be

financed by the public sector.

Public procurement is actually a remarkable market force. In Europe, public

procurement in each of the 25 Member States must follow the rules outlined in the

EU’s Public Procurement Directives. The primary purpose of these Directives is to

ensure that there is a properly functioning internal market so suppliers from any

Member State can have equal access to the public procurement markets in any

Member State. More recently attention has begun to be given to how these

instruments can be used to further other objectives of public policy, including

environmental and social objectives. In this context, there have now been revisions

made to the Directives that, inter alia, encourage the inclusion of accessibility

criteria in public procurement by the Member States (International workshop on

accessibility requirements for public procurement in the ICT domain).

The preambles to the revised Directives [paragraph 29 of Directive 2004/18/EC and

paragraph 42 of Directive 2004/17/EC] now state that: “Contracting authorities

should, whenever possible, lay down technical specifications so as to take into

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account accessibility criteria for people with disabilities or design for all users.” In

addition, the specific Articles on technical specifications [Article 23, Paragraph 1 of

Directive 2004/18/EC and Article 34, Paragraph 1 of Directive 2004/17/EC] now

state that: “Whenever possible [these] technical specifications should be defined

so as to take into account accessibility criteria for people with disabilities or design

for all users” (International workshop on accessibility requirements for public

procurement in the ICT domain).

4.3.6 Trust

Trust is based on many conditions which have been discussed in this chapter. AmI

requires a user to ‘trust’ the IT systems around them. It is this trust that is the root

of many of the potential difficulties. As everyone is aware, computers will do

exactly as they are instructed, including implementing errors. Because of this

danger, one question that must be asked is what can we trust these systems to do?

If a system is relied upon to open doors automatically, systems need to be put in

place to ensure that there are other means of carrying out this function. If there is

an automatic emergency function, can it be guaranteed that it will work when it is

required? And on what basis does it make the ‘decision’ to call? If an attempt at

contact is made, and the person’s ‘me’ electronic device refuses to allow contact,

on what basis does it do this?

Indeed, trust is necessary for any technology dealing with information related to

user’s personal data and it is the basis of the users’ willingness for their

participation. Indeed, establishing public trust is a key point for any successful

implementation. The trust concept encompasses different points, such as the user

requirements, the trust model, the management of the trust and the solutions

enabling trust. The notion of trust has not only technical aspects but also social,

cultural and legal aspects. In the dark scenarios of SWAMI project, trust is raised

in different connections: trust and confidence, lack of trust (from loss of control,

unwillingness to provide some data, contextual misunderstandings) and honesty.

Also, if the system is set up for someone with disabilities, decisions are being made

in some cases for people, and this in itself is an ethical issue. Procedures need to

be put in place to ensure that if possible the person contributes to the making of

these decisions, and if this is not possible that the decisions made are really in the

interests of the end user affected.

Many consumers do not appreciate the holistic concept of AmI; instead they will

understand separate parts (home automation or broadband internet being the

most obvious). The industry and European governments need to provide

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information explaining the concepts for general education and to counter potential

misleading media reports.

Trust of technology and services is needed, but even something more is needed. An

organised society requires trust between persons. Trust requires privacy protection

and confidentiality. On the other hand, trust requires transparency to a certain

degree. The user must know the principles according to which data is transferred.

4.3.7 Ethically aware design guidelines

Many of the previously mentioned ethical issues may be rooted in the technical

design and implementation of the intelligent environment. Some design decisions

about what information about the user is required, how is that information stored,

transmitted or processed, what kind of decisions are automatically taken by the

system without human intervention, etc., very much condition the impact on

privacy and personal autonomy produced by the system.

In most cases these decisions are taken for the sake of better efficiency of the

system, ignoring non-technical aspects. After the completion of the design and

implementation phases –maybe during the user testing or even after the

deployment of the system– the impact over autonomy and privacy is detected.

Frequently, these effects cannot be removed without a complete redesign of the

system, leading to a situation where users must accept the system “as it is” or just

reject it.

Designers adduce that they only need to cope with technical problems, leaving

social and moral problems under the responsibility of policy makers, service

providers, care givers, familiars, etc. But, if they were aware of existing regulations

and basic principles, they would be able to avoid these effects.

Therefore, in order to prevent undesired ethical impacts, it is necessary to provide

designers with ethical or moral guidelines that help them to avoid unnecessary

collisions with users’ civil rights. The need and convenience of inclusive and

ethically aware design guidelines is studied and discussed by Abascal and Nicolle

[Abascal and Nicolle, 2005].

Ethical guidelines are not yet well established and disseminated. Nevertheless,

examples of good practice, compiled by diverse research groups, user associations,

institutions, etc., may help people interested in developing ethical impact-free

applications and systems. For instance, the effects of tagging systems on elderly

people affected by dementia are carefully studied by Nicolle [Nicolle, 1998]. On

the other hand, Casas et al., [Casas et al., 2006], analyse the type of information

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that can be stored and transmitted by indoor location systems for fragile elderly

people in institutions, and provide useful design guidelines.

Several ethical issues in Ambient Intelligence environments do not only affect

people with disabilities and elderly people as shown in [Bohn et al., 2005] and

[Robinson et al., 2005]. For instance, the impact over user’s privacy of location

systems -and technical alternatives to decrease it- are recurrently discussed, by

[Myles et al., 2003], [Beresford and Stajano, 2003], [Clarke, 1999], etc. Civil rights

protection of common users would have evident benefits in protecting the rights

of people with disabilities and elderly people. Nevertheless, some basic protective

requirements, such as “informed consent”, are hardly extensible to the case of

people with cognitive restrictions, which require further discussion.

4.3.8 Conclusion

Below is a brief Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats (SWOT) analysis

summarising the issues and possibilities:

Strengths

• Allows an end user more personal freedom, and better access to their

environment

• Potential to give full access to places previously unavailable

• Increased safety, comfort, convenience, security.

Weaknesses

• Data is broadcast, open to interference

• Updating of the systems: possible that the information can become out of

sync

• Computers will do what they are programmed to do, so are liable to make

the incorrect choices in some situations.

Opportunities

• Improved security to ensure no interception of information

• Regular reviews to ensure customer satisfaction, relevant information

• Ability to review the ‘automatic’ decisions made by the system.

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Threats

Misuse of information

AmI benefits may be negated by numerous threats such as accidental or

intentional misuse of the components of AmI systems (tags, sensors, readers, other

smart devices and so on) and associated databases, and by a wide range of issues

such as privacy and personal well-being (societal and ethical issues). Indeed,

various issues related to pervasive security problems can lead to enlarged privacy

violations committed by insiders and outsiders, e. g . misuses of databases

associated with RFID tag information, or remote surveillance whenever AmI

devices are vulnerable (lack of security guarantee).

The difference between misuse and abuse of data is that misuse refers to the case

where an organisation for example does not protect its systems adequately and

has its data stolen through a computer attack. Abuse refers to an organisation that

sells personal data to a second one.

Illegal use of information

Danger of identity theft: most actions in everyday life carry identity information and

to be able to perform them, people need to present identity for identification or

authentication purposes. Hence, identity theft is becoming a very serious problem

which compromises the safety of people and the integrity of the identity of each

individual. The Internet and the increasing importance of electronic transactions

and subsequent digital traces exacerbate the problem as it becomes easier for an

identity thief to carry out fraud:

Incorrect decisions made automatically, without the awareness

of the end user

Safety shortcomings.

These are some of the issues which should be addressed when developing AmI

applications. However, human beings need other people who cannot be replaced

by AmI. But sometimes technology can help in everyday life. Ethics is about the

relationship between persons but can also be expected to say something about

people when they use technology. It is important how technology is used: what can

it be used for and how should it be developed? When agreement is reached in a

parliament, it can turn into law. Ethical discussions, policies, guidelines and

legislation are needed to overcome the challenges posed by Ambient Intelligence.

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4.3.9 References

ABASCAL J., NICOLLE C., (2005). Moving towards inclusive design guidelines for

socially and ethically aware HCI. Interacting with Computers. Vol. 17, Issue 5. Pp.

484-505. Special issue on Social Impact of Emerging Technologies, Edited by V.

Kostakos, L. Little, E. O'Neill and E. Sillence. (Available on-line).

American Association for Artificial Intelligence;

http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/html/rooms.html

BERESFORD, A., STAJANO, F., (2003). Location privacy in pervasive computing.

IEEE Pervasive Computing vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 46–55.

BOHN J., COROAMA V., LANGHEINRICH M., MATTERN F., ROHS M., (2005).

Social, Economic, and Ethical Implications of Ambient Intelligence and Ubiquitous

Computing. W. Weber, J. Rabaey, E. Aarts (Eds.): Ambient Intelligence, Springer-

Verlag, ISBN 3-540-23867-0, pp. 5-29.

CASAS R., MARCO A., FALCÓ J. L, ARTIGAS J. I., ABASCAL J., (2006). Ethically

Aware Design of a Location System for People with Dementia. In K.

Miesenberger et al. (Eds.): ICCHP 2006, LNCS 4061, pp. 777-784. Springer-

Verlag.

CASERT, R., (2004). Rathenau Institute’s Workshop Ambient Intelligence: In the

service of Man? EUSAI 2004 symposium, November 8-10, 2004, Eindhoven

University of Technology, The Netherlands, 20pp.

Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, OJ C 364, 18.12.2000,

p. 1. http://www.europarl.eu.int/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf , 2000.

CLARKE, R., (1999). Person-Location and Person-Tracking: Technologies. Risks

and Policy Implications. Proceedings of International Conference on Privacy and

Personal Data Protection. Hong Kong; 131–150.

Directive 73/23/EEC on the harmonization of the laws of the Member States

relating to electrical equipment designed for use within certain voltage limits -

'the low voltage Directive'.

Directive 89/336/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the Members States

relating to electromagnetic compatibility.

Directive 95/46/EC on the processing of personal data.

Directive 97/66/EC on the protection of privacy and the processing of personal

data in the telecommunications sector.

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Directive 1999/5/EC on radio equipment, telecommunications terminal

equipment and the mutual recognition of their conformity.

Directive 2001/95/EEC on general product safety.

Directive 2002 /22/EC on universal service and user's rights to electronic

communications networks and services (Universal Service Directive).

Directive 2002/58/EC concerning the processing of personal data and the

protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector.

European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (1950).

FIDIS deliverable. D5.2b: ID-related Crime: Towards a Common Ground for

Interdisciplinary Research, Editors: Ronald Leenes (Tilburg University, The

Netherlands), May 2006.

FIDIS deliverable, (2005). D7.3: “Report on Actual and Possible Profiling

Techniques in the Field of Ambient Intelligence”, Editors: Wim Schreurs, Mireille

Hildebrandt (VUB, Belgium)

Mark Gasson, Kevin Warwick (Reading University, UK), August 2005.

Information for Data Controllers, Irish Data Protection Commissioners, (2003).

http://www.dataprivacy.ie/viewdoc.asp?Docid=192&Catid=49&StartDate=1+Jan

uary+2006&m=p

International workshop on accessibility requirements for public procurement in

the ICT domain. 19-21 October, 2004, Brussels. Workshop organised by the

European Commission, the US Access Board, the European standardisation

organisations and contributions of the European Disability Forum (EDF) with

support of the eInclusion@EU project. http://www.einclusion-eu.org

KAMMEN, J. van, (2003). Care Technology, chances for innovation and use (In

Dutch), STT66, The Hague; info@stt.nl .

KEMPPAINEN, E. Moral and Legislative Issues with regard to Ambient

Intelligence.

http://www.cnti.org.cy/Cost219/Cost219terCyprusWorkshop/index.html

MORGANATI, F., RIVA, G., (2005). Ambient Intelligence for Rehabilitation. In

Ambient Intelligence, IOSPress, p283-295.

MYLES, G., FRIDAY, A., DAVIES, N., (2003). Preserving privacy in environments

with location-based applications. IEEE Pervasive Computing 2 (1), 56–64.

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people with disabilities

NICOLLE, C., (1998). Issues in the Use of Tagging for People who Wander - A

European Perspective. Personal Social Services in Northern Ireland, Vol. 58, pp.

10-22.

PUNIE,Y., DELAITRE, S. & MAGHIROS, I., (2006). Dark scenarios in ambient

intelligence: Highlighting risks and vulnerabilities. Deliverable D2. Safeguards in a

World of Ambient Intelligence (SWAMI).

http://swami.jrc.es.pages/deliverables.htm

ROBINSON P., VOGT H., WAGEALLA, W. (Eds.), (2005). Privacy, Security and Trust

within the Context of Pervasive Computing. The Kluwer International Series in

Engineering and Computer Science, Springer Science+Business Media, Inc., ISBN

0-387-23461-6.

SOEDE, M.; Ambient Intelligence and Disability. where do they meet?

http://www.cnti.org.cy/Cost219/Cost219terCyprusWorkshop/index.html

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5.

The regulatory scene

5. The regulatory scene

5.1 Regulation at the crossroads

Tony Shipley

The future of European regulation on Telecommunications, and more generally, on

Electronic Communications, is in the balance. As this book goes to press, the

European Commission is consulting on proposed revisions to the set of Directives

on Electronic Communications – the so-called ‘Framework Directives’. Revision of

the Radio and Telecommunications Terminal Equipment Directive – the RTTE

Directive – has been placed on hold while any changes to the Framework

Directives are considered. At the same time, the review of Relevant Markets is

proceeding and an outcome is expected early in 2007. Each of these processes

offers the possibility of profound change in the regulatory approach or, in the

absence of agreement on changes, an acceptance of the status quo. COST 219ter

and its member bodies will be taking part in the consultation processes and

submitting comments and proposals, informed by the studies and debates that

have formed part of this COST Action. There is of course no certainty that the

revisions that COST 219ter would like to see put in place will form part of the final

decisions. There is the possibility that profound changes could radically alter the

ways in which the declared objective of COST 219ter would have to be

approached, in the years following the conclusion of this particular Action. This

Chapter will explore some of the issues which will influence the future of

regulation and it will attempt to assess the effects of the possible outcomes.

Legislators will be faced with a choice of directions, each one having a different

regulatory impact, so it is fair to make the comment that regulation is indeed ‘at

the crossroads’.

5.1.1 The shape of regulation now

The Framework Directives

Five Directives were proposed in 2000 and subsequently enacted. These were:

• A common regulatory framework for electronic communications networks

and services

• Universal service and users’ rights relating to electronic communications

networks and services (Universal Service Directive)

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• Access to, and interconnection of, electronic communications networks and

associated facilities

• The processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the

electronic communications sector

• The authorisation of electronics communications networks and services.

These five Directives, together with the RTTE Directive of 1999, make up the

current European regulatory framework for Electronic Communications. There are

further Directives, such as ‘TV without Fr o n t i e r s ’ , which specifically cover

Broadcasting.

The 2006 Review

By 2006, the Framework Directives were due for review as part of the regular

process for updating EU Directives. Review of the RTTE Directive had commenced

a year earlier. There are several stages to the review and the process began with

an examination of the scope of universal service. This was followed by wide

consultation on the general and specific matters to be considered in the review,

with the EU Member States as well as all other interested parties being invited to

make submissions. In June 2006, having taken into account the views expressed

in this consultation, the Commission tabled its formal proposals for the revisions

to the Framework Directives.

COST 219ter has contributed to this consultation in various ways – by direct

response to the invitation and by responses from its national Reference Groups –

by putting views to Member State Governments to inform their own comments –

and by discussion and debate in the INCOM (Inclusive Communications)

Committee set up by the European Commission. In the direct response COST

219ter made the points which follow, and this submission encapsulates the policy

which the members of this Action wish to promote.

COST 219ter Submission to the Preliminary Consultation Round

“Our main area of interest is the Universal Service Directive which, in addition to

defining the minimum set of service provisions guaranteed through universal

service, also sets out the statutory rights of users. We believe that it is necessary

for these universal service obligations and users’ rights to be extended fully to

mobile networks, and also for enabling powers to be given to national regulators

to apply similar obligations within their own territories to broadband services and

to new generation networks and services. We are aware of the argument that

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regulation may have a stifling effect upon innovative services, and we are also

aware that the Commission has previously shown reluctance to extend universal

service coverage to sectors where roll-out across the EU is incomplete. We wish to

counter these lines of argument by emphasising that users’ rights will be greatly

devalued if they are confined to types of service delivery that are approaching

obsolescence. Furt h e rm o re, patterns in new generation services will have

developed very significantly by the time that the outcomes of the next review of

the Framework Directives can be applied, and any undesirable features that have

become entrenched will then be very difficult to correct. We are not pressing for

a more intrusive regulatory regime, but instead we are asking for national

regulators to be empowered to introduce regulation in new generation services,

including broadband, where they consider it to be essential. We are supportive of

the principle that regulation is necessary only where the market has failed to

deliver, but we contend that it is inherent to this principle that regulators must be

able to intervene rapidly, through subsidiarity powers if appropriate, where market

failure is evident. If fast moving technologies are being brought to the market at

differing rates across the EU’s Member States, then observation and – where

necessary – corrective intervention, must be applied nationally.

On the specific features of the Universal Service Directive, we would hope to see

further clarification of the obligations in respect of calls to the 112 emergency

number. The present requirement relates only to the connection of such calls and

leaves open the manner in which the calls are handled, so that there is an almost

complete reliance upon voice calls. In our view, this is inappropriate for modern

networks and is contrary to the spirit of the Directives and their emphasis upon

universality. We will argue that 112 should be accessible to all users in the

telecommunication modality that they normally use – in other words, if the

network offers any particular modality for public communication, 112 access

should be provided in that modality. Linked to this, we want to see clarification of

the definition of a Publicly Available Telephone Service, so that access to

e m e rgency numbers is seen as an obligation on all networks off e r i n g

telecommunication services to the public.

The availability and affordability of accessible terminals for disabled users is a

matter which continues to be a cause for concern and, in our view, this is a service

provision issue which goes beyond the technical requirements of the RTTE

Directive. If market forces alone, in respect of the terminals manufacturing

industry, have not delivered obtainable and affordable equipment, we believe

there is a case for intervention as a universal service issue, for otherwise the goal

of a set of services accessible to all users cannot be achieved. While the recent

revision of the Public Procurement Directive will eventually lead to an improved

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perception of the accessibility features that are required, we take the view that this

objective can be advanced and accelerated if national agencies can use the

mechanisms of universal service funding to stimulate the market for accessible

terminals. Without wishing to advance any particular service models, we note that

some Member States have mechanisms in place to promote the supply of terminals

that would not otherwise be available. We believe that this is a legitimate use of

universal service funding resources that should be specifically encouraged in a

revision of that particular Directive”.

In making these comments, COST 219ter was aware that there was great

reluctance within the Commission to propose extension of universal service rights

and obligations across the mobile and broadband sectors throughout the EU,

presumably on the grounds that the roll-out of such services was uneven and

Member States would therefore raise strong objections where they considered that

application of universal service principles would be premature. Similar objections

would be raised in respect of New Generation Services (and networks). The

proposed alternative was therefore to allow freedom to National Regulators to

apply such extensions once the services in their territories had reached an

appropriate degree of maturity. COST 219ter members were acutely aware that

technological and commercial developments in electronic communications service

delivery move at a rapid pace, with the result that new patterns of service can

become established before the regulatory bodies are able to take action. The

balance between encouraging novel and welcome developments, on the one hand,

and maintaining the basic user safeguards, on the other, can be a delicate one. If

the introduction of new types of service across the EU Member States is not

uniform, and there is no reason why it should be, then it is vital that regulators at

a national level should be empowered to act when they consider that the time is

right.

The empowerment of National Regulators does not mean that the principles of the

Single Market have to be discarded, for national differences in service delivery

patterns are already recognised, particularly in the application of universal service.

The Commission’s Communications Committee (COCOM), which monitors the

implementation of the Electronic Communications Directives, is able to foster a

harmonised approach in subsidiarity issues, that is to say, those areas of regulation

which are devolved to Member States because fully centralised regulation would

be heavy-handed or inappropriate. Use of this mechanism, instead of waiting for a

further revision of a centralised Directive, offers a vitally important method of

ensuring that users’ rights and safeguards are maintained in evolving services. It

should also ensure that the delivery of the set of basic services, defined as universal

service, is not consigned solely to traditional networks which may be facing

obsolescence.

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The emphasis in COST 219ter’s submission - above - upon the manner of making

112 emergency calls arose because this facility was seen as an important indicator

of the availability of basic services. Traditionally a feature of PSTN networks, it has

become obligatory for mobile services available to the public, but only for voice

calls. Some Member States have relay services which can interconnect fixed line

Textphone terminals with the 112 voice call bureaux, but not by using the 112

number, and a few can handle emergency calls using Short Message Service (SMS)

text from mobile handsets. In general, the facility for making emergency calls has

lagged far behind the vanguard of developing services.

The Commission’s Communication – June 2006

On 29th June 2006 the Commission issued a Communication (COM(2006)334

final) setting out its proposals for the revision of the Framework Directives,

following the earlier consultations. A further period of public consultation on the

content of that document ran until 27 October, following which the detailed

revisions would be prepared for the Council of Ministers and the European

Parliament.

As expected, the thrust of the Communication was towards a reduction and

simplification of the legislation applying to the electronic communications sector,

rather than an extension with added detail regulation for newer types of service.

The Commission pointed out that the primary intention of the original legislation

– to limit the market dominance of the former monopoly incumbents – had largely

been achieved. Openly competitive services do not require economic regulation

beyond that provided by the general competition rules, so sector-specific legislation

can be dispensed with. The Communication emphasised that the purpose is to deal

with markets, not technologies, in the furtherance of an open and successful

internal market in the EU. As each part of the electronic communications market

becomes fully competitive, the relevant regulation can be withdrawn and the

National Regulators can step back.

In addition to economic regulation, the Framework provided for various consumer

protection measures, with legal obligations on privacy, data protection, universal

service and users’ rights. So the questions inevitably would arise of whether and

how these will be maintained once the regulatory system and its enforcement

mechanisms had been withdrawn. Proposals on this theme were not contained in

the June Communication. Instead, the Commission announced its intention to

produce a Green Paper on universal service in 2007, ‘to launch a wide ranging

debate’. No time scale for this debate was suggested but it is likely to be lengthy.

As with economic regulation, the removal of sector-specific requirements implies a

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reliance upon more general horizontal legislation to ensure adequate protection

but not all of this horizontal legislation actually exists. Nevertheless, it is already

apparent that the growing convergence of electronic communications technologies

is rendering detailed sector controls unworkable, so the principle of a more general

consumer protection framework ought to be welcomed.

The topics that were covered by specific proposals were:

• Spectrum management, to ensure most efficient use of the radio spectrum

• Streamlining the process of Market Reviews, to determine where

competition is effective

• Consolidating the Internal Market, with greater consistency in national

measures

• Strengthening Consumers’ and Users’ Rights

• Improving Security (and modernising the approach on network integrity),

and

• Better Regulation, with the removal of outdated provisions.

The examination of relevant markets, to show which market sectors had achieved

full and open competition, is being carried out largely as a separate exercise with

a shorter time-scale than for the main review. This will be an important aspect of

the overall review process, for it could result in fully competitive sectors being

removed from the scope of legislation. Directory and Directory Enquiry services

were specifically noted as being ready for de-regulation.

There were some issues relating to accessibility for disabled users, addressed in the

June proposals, instead of waiting on the outcome of the Green Paper and its

ensuing debate. A point of particular interest was a proposal to adapt the

regulatory framework on services to cover telecommunications terminal

e q u i p m e n t , which is a move that COST 219 has long advocated. Th e

Communication noted the anomaly that consumer terminal equipment used in

broadcasting is covered by the framework, whereas telecommunications terminals

are subject to the quite separate RTTE Directive. As a first step in removing the

anomaly, it was proposed to review the definition of a Network Termination Point

(NTP) in the Universal Service Directive and to relax the RTTE obligation on

network operators to publish their NTP interface specifications. The effect of these

changes was not clear; it seemed to be the intention to allow equipment

manufacturers and network operators to collaborate on the introduction of

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proprietary (ie non-harmonised) innovative services. Whether such a move would

benefit users with a disability has yet to be proved, since one of the problems

arising from the terminals/networks division has been a diversity of equipment

protocols leading to incompatibility between terminals on the same network.

A further proposal was to amend the Universal Service Directive so that separate

obligations are applied to providers of access infrastructure and to providers of

services. This was said to be to facilitate a future review of these obligations and it

would require updating the definition of a Publicly Available Telephone Service

(PATS), which is another issue that COST 219 has advocated.

Directory and Directory Enquiry services are proposed for removal from regulation

under the framework, on the grounds that these are fully and openly competitive

and therefore sector regulation is redundant. It would not then be possible to use

the framework powers to ensure that such services are accessible to people with

a disability, although in Member States that have horizontal legislation on

avoidance of discrimination in place (such as the Disability Discrimination Act in

the UK) this obligation could be maintained. This may be seen as an example of

how other, horizontal, legislation is necessary if problems with the withdrawal of

sector-specific legislation are to be avoided.

A further proposal was to amend Article 7 (on Special Measures for disabled users)

so as to strengthen the right of disabled users to access the emergency services by

means of the 112 number. The Communication noted, appropriately, that the

nature and extent of the requirement (for access via 112) needed to be clarified,

but simply underlining an existing obligation may not address the issue. Another

proposal in the Communication was that there should be a procedure whereby

Member States could be encouraged to agree common requirements related to

networks or services, and current work in COCOM on the interface between

network operators and public safety answering bureaux was cited as an example.

It would seem highly desirable to extend this area of negotiated common

requirements to cover the ways (eg text, fax, SMS, multi-mode, as well as voice) in

which emergency calls are transmitted across the networks, transferred to the

public services, and answered.

There was a further proposal to create a mechanism to enhance eAccessibility. It

envisaged the creation of a group consisting of Member States, i n d u s t r y

associations and disability organisations. This group could be tasked with

identifying appropriate action to address eAccessibility problems, but it was not

clear what the outputs of the group might be, given that it would have to work

alongside established legal and consultative structures.

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Next Steps in the Review

By the end of 2006, a further round of open consultation (this time on the

Commission’s July 2006 proposals for revisions of the Framework Directives) will

be complete. The Commission will then proceed with a formal paper to Member

States, setting out the drafts of the revised Directives. The official negotiating stage

will then commence. This stage could take up to 18 months, depending upon the

degree of agreement among the 25 Member States. Although the Commission will

have been aware of the views of these 25 nations, as a result of the earlier

consultation stages, it is probable that there will be several points of contention

that have to be reconciled in the course of the negotiations. The views from

industry and from consumer groups will have been made known during the

consultations and these are likely to diverge sharply on the general issue of more,

or less, regulation as well as on specific details. Member State Governments will

also have listened to these views and they will have been influenced to varying

extents by them. However, it is in the nature of negotiations that some points will

be conceded in order to gain acceptance of others of greater importance, so each

Member State will have prioritized its objectives according to this principle. Such

negotiations between 25 nations are inevitably lengthy, but eventually an ‘official

position’ will be reached.

The official position will then be considered by the European Parliament. It is very

probable that the industry associations and consumer groups will seek to lobby

Parliament, in an attempt to restore clauses that they had originally pressed for but

had lost in the negotiating process (or to delete others that they objected to).

MEP’s will have their own views, which may be coloured by representations from

their constituents. As a result, Parliament may amend the official position

document and the Council of Ministers (the senior representatives of the Member

States) will have to decide whether to accept the amendments. Further exchanges

between the Council and Parliament may take place and, in the absence of

agreement, ‘conciliation procedures’ may be commenced. At the end of this stage,

there will either be agreement upon a compromise or the entire Directive will fall.

As there are five Directives here, all interlinked, a very complicated situation could

arise. Also, at some stage in this process, the review and possible revision of the

RTTE Directive has to be recommenced.

When there is agreement following these procedures, the Directives are enacted

and there will be a time set for implementation by the Member States. This may be

between one and three years, depending upon the complexity of the obligations.

There may also be a transition period, if time is needed to set up new regulatory

arrangements or if industry is obliged to introduce new processes or procedures.

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Time Scales

It is unlikely that any revisions to the Electronic Communications Directives will

produce practical results before 2011 at the earliest. If revised Directives are

enacted by the end of 2008, and there is an implementation period of two years,

the Member States should have their amended national legislation in place at the

start of 2011. Previous experience suggests that not all the EU Members will meet

the target. Time is then needed for the new national legislation to take effect,

making it quite probable that the effects of the revisions now under discussion will

not be observed before 2012 or 2013. If implementation of the revisions hinges

upon the availability of a new batch of technical standards, the time scale could be

even longer. Given the fast-moving pace of electronic communications technology,

it is evident that effective regulation cannot be introduced by means of Directives

alone.

The legislation contained in EU Directives has to be future-proofed, as far as that

is possible, setting out fundamental requirements and leaving the detail to be

e l a b o rated by other means. Those other means will chiefly be European

harmonized standards, but although it is quicker and easier to up-date standards

than it is to revise Directives, the consultation and comment steps involved still

make the preparation of formal standards a lengthy process. In some instances,

there is scope for use of Codes of Practice as an alternative to formal standards,

and if these are drawn up by National Regulators working in partnership with

industry and consumers they can be available in a relatively short space of time.

It is the view of COST 219ter that the regulatory system must be able to move

quickly enough to deal with problem issues as new technology is introduced, and

therefore any new or revised Directives need to provide enabling powers to

facilitate this – without compromising the basic barrier-free trading principles of

the Single Market within the European Union. If regulation of ‘state of the art’

service delivery can be initiated at national levels, in those Member States where

problems have arisen, and harmonized informally through COCOM, this objective

could be achieved.

The RTTE Directive

Although the review of the RTTE Directive commenced before that of the

Framework Directives, it has been put on hold until the future direction of

telecommunications legislation has become clearer. It is not yet clear whether that

clarification will emerge from the 2006 Review process. One possible outcome is

that there will be very little change; some minor adjustments might be

incorporated while leaving a more dramatic recasting of the legislation to a

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subsequent review. If that is the result, then a similar approach could be adopted

for the RTTE Directive.

Two significant areas of revision were proposed in the early stages of the RTTE

review, and they were mutually exclusive. This explains the need for a ‘steer’ based

upon the future direction of the Framework, before reaching a conclusion in the

case of RTTE.

The RTTE Directive of 1999 was itself a deregulatory Directive. It removed the pre-

market approval regimes for most terminal types, keeping a formal approval system

only for the more critical uses of the radio spectrum. Fixed line terminals were

effectively treated as ordinary consumer equipment, subject to general provisions

on consumer safety and avoidance of electrical interference. Without pre-market

approval, the enforcement of requirements for this category of equipment was

necessarily left to the usual consumer protection authorities, typically Trading

Standards bodies. One proposal put forward in the review was to take this process

to its logical conclusion, by dropping fixed line terminals from the Directive

altogether and leaving the more general Directives to apply – these being the Low

Voltage Directive on electrical and mechanical safety, and the Electromagnetic

Compatibility (EMC) Directive on electro-magnetic interference. It was argued that

this would make no difference in practice, as it would simply be a recognition of

the current reality. Another proposal ran counter to this in that it proposed more

specific use of Article 3.3(f) of the 1999 Directive; this article empowered the

Commission to make regulations concerning the accessibility of terminal

equipment for people with disabilities. Although this was a potentially important

power, its application had been actively debated from the time that the Directive

was under negotiation, that is prior to 1999, and no practical means of drafting

and enforcing such regulation had been discovered. So the future shape of the

RTTE Directive was going to be determined by the answer to the fundamental

question – more regulation or less? That same question would be posed in respect

of the Framework Directives, so it was logical to wait on the answer reached there

before completing the RTTE review.

Review of Relevant Markets

A further issue linked to the Review process, but following different rules, is the

consideration of ‘relevant markets’. The Framework Directives are all Single Market

Directives, aimed at promoting barrier-free trade within the EU. If barrier-free trade

already existed, there would be no need of such Directives. Equally, if a state of

barrier-free trade were to be brought about, the Directives (for that sector) would

become superfluous. This highlights an aspect of the Framework Directives which

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is largely invisible to the consumer but is vitally important to the industry. Barriers

to trade can take various forms; the most obvious being that of national tariff

barriers, which have long since been dismantled within the EU. Second to that is

the imposition of technical barriers in the form of national requirements for

product safety, compatibility or quality; the Single Market Directives aim to

harmonise such requirements so that goods may be moved across national

frontiers without hindrance.

A further type of barrier arises from the presence of operators with Significant

Market Power (SMP) in a particular territory. This has been a very significant form

of barrier in the telecommunications markets, because the former monopoly

suppliers – the national telephone utilities – owned the fixed line infrastructure

and could control access to it by competitors. These competitors could replicate the

trunk line infrastructure by leasing lines, obtaining wayleaves or using radio and

satellite links, but they could not economically duplicate the local loop that

provides the final connection to a subscriber’s premises. Unbundling the local loop

was therefore a major objective in the first round of telecommunications

liberalisation and, being a complex issue to unravel, it is still to be completed.

While this is perhaps the most significant example, there are other instances where

a particular operator can dominate a market sector by being able to control access

to critical facilities.

A crucial part of the package of Framework Directives has therefore been to

identify and then to limit the exercise of SMP by dominant operators. It can be

claimed that this is the most important role of the National Regulators in the

telecommunications sector. Without the special features of the traditional fixed line

market, any abuses of a dominant market position could be dealt with by means

of the general EU legislation on competition and the avoidance of anti-competitive

practices. Arguably, there is no particular need of harmonised legislation covering

technical standards for telecommunications; m a r ket forces will ensure

compatibility, as it is not in the interest of any operator to have a network which

cannot terminate calls originating from others. There is a recognised need for

spectrum management harmonisation in the radio arena, but there is an effective

mechanism for this which pre-dates the Electronic Communications Directives. A

reasonable conclusion would therefore be that it is the proper aim of the

telecommunications regulators to work themselves out of a job, in as much as

eliminating the dominance of organisations with SMP would then render the

sector-specific legislation redundant.

National Regulators are charged with the task of examining all the ‘relevant

markets’ and reporting on those where market dominance continues to cause a

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distortion. Some 15 market sectors have been defined and are being examined.

Only in a very few cases is there evidence of full and free competition actually

operating, but some parts of the mobile market seem to be close to this point. If

operators can justifiably claim that their market is fully competitive, they can ask to

be exempted from the obligations of the Framework Directives, and removed from

the scrutiny of the National Regulators. The outcome of the review of Relevant

Markets will be decided by the Commission early in 2007. If a sector is so

exempted, the user safeguards afforded by the Framework Directives could cease

to apply. However, it does appear that exemption from a Single Market Directive

would also remove the prohibition on the introduction of non-harmonised national

legislation. Decisions on this aspect of the review could therefore be of great

significance, both for suppliers and consumers.

Issues for the future

‘More regulation or less?’ That question is clearly going to be a key issue in the

future of all the EU Single Market Directives. The original purpose of the Single

Market had been to establish a trading bloc in Europe with a strong and barrier-

free domestic market, in order to avoid political and economic dependence upon

the North Americas or the Pacific Rim. Much has changed since the 1957 Treaty of

Rome, and the growing pressure now is to harmonise trading practices between

the three great economic Groups and, at the same time, to limit their dominance

over smaller and poorer trading nations. The horizon is now recognised as global,

and not simply European. The influence of the World Trade Organisation in

promoting fair trade is increasingly observed.

It could be that the pattern of World trade will evolve much as the European Single

Market evolved, over a period of 50 years, with the elimination of tariff barriers,

the harmonisation of technical barriers, and concerted action to reduce the power

of dominant market traders. There are agreements on tariffs and trade which aim

to promote a free-trading environment in which market distortions such as internal

subsidy and ‘dumping’of production surpluses are curtailed. Even the large trading

blocs are concerned about the power of global corporations and their ability to

dictate market conditions, so there is a readiness to curb the activities of multi-

national operators where they are seen to be anti-competitive. In the field of

formal standards, there has for some years been a policy of moving towards

acceptance of international standards, rather than territorial standards, because

this is the logical way to promote trade in a global market-place. All of these

measures are brought about by negotiated agreements and Treaties, and the

process may be slow and difficult, but the effort being applied to it indicates the

political importance attached to such moves by the World’s nations.

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Applying these principles of global trade to areas such as agriculture may require

long and difficult negotiation, but the electronic communications market is already

intrinsically global. Because it is a relatively new marke t , the entrenched

protectionist positions found in some of the more traditional sectors have not

developed and, because it is based upon a fast-moving set of technologies, it is

unlikely that they will. There is little point in seeking to protect a market state that

will be quickly rendered obsolescent by technological progress. Therefore, it is

probable that the effects of globalization will be felt in electronic communications

legislation long before they are seen elsewhere. The key question is ‘How soon?’

Globalization is tantamount to having less regulation applied to the market-place,

if only because of the impossibility of defining detailed trading rules in all market

sectors and acceptable to all the trading nations. Broad cross-sector principles

apply, in relation to fair competition and the prohibition of restrictive trading

practices. This approach is at odds with the view expressed by many consumers, to

the effect that more market-place regulation is necessary in order to protect the

most vulnerable consumers from exploitation or from neglect of their interests.

Disabled and elderly consumers are particularly vulnerable, especially if they have

little economic power, because suppliers fighting for the large emerging markets

have little enthusiasm or incentive for considering their needs. If the legislative

direction should happen to be that of less regulation, then the question of how to

protect the interests of those who are disenfranchised in a free market becomes

all-important.

If market legislation should shift towards broad principles of market-place conduct,

rather than more detailed sector-specific rules, a probable answer would be to

introduce equivalent broad principles for protection of consumer interests.

Horizontal measures for protection of citizens’ rights, including such issues as

disability discrimination, would be needed to off-set the dilution of legislation that

is currently contained in specific market sector rules. This need not be a cause for

alarm. Most market sectors are not covered by specific legislation at present, so

there is reliance upon more general obligations. It would simply reflect the

situation that arose a decade ago, when telecommunications liberalisation in the

EU outlawed many of the older national approval rules, some of which were

becoming obsolete because of technological advances. It created an opportunity to

re-frame the obligations in a broader and more far-reaching manner, with

emphasis upon principles rather than ephemeral detail. Less regulation is not

necessarily to the detriment of vulnerable users, provided that careful attention is

given to other means of safe-guarding their interests.

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The Crossroads

At some stage, European legislators will be faced with three main options; to try

to hold the present direction with only minor adjustments, to move firmly towards

a global position with some loss of European autonomy, or to enhance the

protection afforded to Europe’s traders and consumers by means of additional

sector-specific legislation. Whether that stage has been reached in the present

review round of the EU Directives remains to be seen. What is of vital importance

is the need to foresee the impact of these options, and to be able to define an

adequate set of measures that will ensure that vulnerable users are not

overlooked. COST 219ter members welcome the policies of ensuring that Europe’s

Information Society is inclusive and accessible to all. They strongly support these

policies while recognising that there may be many routes to their achievement.

Which Road to Take

Although it is not be possible at present to predict the direction in which regulation

of Electronic Communications will develop after the 2006 Review, COST 219ter

members are fully agreed that there are some essentials that must be observed if

the disadvantages faced by people with a disability are to be diminished. First and

foremost, it must be recognised that the commercial forces that drive a free market

do not automatically deliver offerings that are appropriate to the needs of those

consumers who are outside the mainstream. Various means of protecting their

interests are therefore needed and there can be no single approach. For people

with a disability, many methods have been tried with differing degrees of success

and it is not even obvious that a common approach throughout the EU would be

attractive. The key to acceptance lies in part in national cultures and traditions,

making this a subsidiarity issue for the EU’s Member States, but the EU’s declared

policy of non-discrimination is clear and some overall legislative statement is a

fundamental requirement. The following section describes the approaches taken in

some non-EU Countries.

Within the EU, the picture is coloured by the history of telecommunications

provision. In an era of public service provision, telecommunications was a natural

extension of Posts and Telegraphs and became the responsibility of the same

bodies, the PTTs. Even broadcasting, if not part of the PTT function, was managed

by similar public service bodies. So the availability of specific facilities for disabled

users was ensured as a matter of course within this public service ethos, often

matched by complementary services from other public sector organisations. For

example, central or local Government bodies might undertake the supply of

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terminal equipment for people who could not otherwise obtain, or afford, it. With

this background, as liberalisation of electronic communications was promoted, it

was a simple matter to write into the legislation a continuation of these safeguards

for vulnerable users, generally in the guise of ‘Universal Service’.

For as long as sector legislation continues to apply in this field, it ought to be

possible to preserve the universal service concept. The Commission’s decision to

review universal service outside the 2006 Review framework is perhaps a pointer

towards a time when the Single Market no longer requires specific legislation for

this sector and so alternative user safeguards have to be found. It may not be

effective to retain the sector-specific safeguards as a piece of ‘stand alone’

regulation after that time, for the surveillance and enforcement functions would

have been dispersed. The experience of trying to apply regulation to non-radio

terminal equipment – following the de-regulation of that area under the RTTE

Directive – is a clear indicator of that. COST 219ter members believe that

regulation will always be an essential lever for maintaining and improving the

accessibility of services and equipment for people with a disability. What form that

regulation needs to take in order to be effective surely will depend upon

circumstances.

Regulation in other Countries

In Australia the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) 1992, the Telecommunications

Act 1997 and the Telecommunications (Consumer Protection and Service

Standards) Act 1999 are the primary legislative drivers for improving accessibility

in telecommunications. The DDA was used to establish that a user with a disability

was discriminated against when his telecommunications service provider failed to

supply him with a rented terminal suited to his needs. This finding led to the

expansion of the disability equipment program by the universal service provider.

The principles of universal service were taken up in the Telecommunications Act,

with obligations on the designated providers that are somewhat similar to those

found in the EU. However, it is important to note that the definition of the Standard

Telephone Service in the Telecommunications (Consumer Protection and Service

Standards) Act 1999 is a carriage service for the purpose of voice telephony (or its

equivalent, for example, if the person has a hearing impairment) and that it meets

the any to any connectivity test. This in effect means that the Standard Telephone

Service is technology-neutral. However, the definition of STS is currently under

review in terms of its applicability to the various types of VoIP. This has important

implications with regard to mobile telephony and the provision of IP-based

telephony and other next generation network services. The definition of the

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universal service obligation in the Act is the obligation “to ensure that standard

telephone services are reasonably accessible to all people in Australia on an

equitable basis, wherever they reside or carry on business”.

There have been amendments to a range of clauses in the Telecommunications Act

reflecting the increasingly liberalized aspects of telecommunications in Australia.

An example is that previously carrier licences for all operators included a condition

that an industry development plan must be provided, and one aspect of this plan

was the notification of the carrier’s activities in research and development

including those of benefit to people with disabilities. This requirement is no longer

there. There is extremely limited research in Australia on IT and telecommunications

solutions for people with disabilities. On the other hand, consumer representation

is accepted as important and the Act provides for Government funding for this

purpose. There are also legislative requirements on the government regulator and

the universal service provider to have formal consumer consultative processes in

place.

In the USA, there are three legislative drivers: the Americans with Disabilities Act,

Section 255 of the Telecommunications Act and Section 508 of the Rehabilitation

Act. The ADA enshrines the rights of people with a disability to make use of

facilities and services that are available to the general public. It does not include a

demand that manufacturers must make products that are accessible – it is the

access to the goods, rather than the goods themselves, that must not exclude

anyone on grounds of disability. In contra s t , Section 255 of the

Telecommunications Act does require the manufacturers of telecommunications

equipment to make products that are accessible wherever that is readily

achievable. Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act goes further by stipulating that

the Fe d e ral Government and its agencies should give preference in their

purchasing of ICT equipment to models which are accessible, unless it would

present an undue burden to do so. For the purposes of Section 508, the task of

defining accessibility is undertaken by an Access Board. This Board drafts the

r e l e vant standards for use by the General Services A d m i n i s t ration – the

procurement Authority for Fe d e ral A g e n c i e s. The A d m i n i s t ration purchases

commercial ‘off-the-shelf’ products, rather than special designs for Government

contracts, and the Access Board updates its standards to keep abreast of best

business practice in accessible ICT equipment. In this way the Administration can

encourage the commercial market in ICT to keep up with the leaders in providing

accessibility features, using the possibility of gaining Government contracts as a

lever. The Access Board has established an Advisory Committee comprising

members from government, industry and consumer bodies to review the Section

508 Guidelines in relation to updating them and considering accessibility

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guidelines developed by international standards bodies such as ISO and ITU-T. This

review is expected to be completed in late 2007 and may result in a broader set

of accessibility guidelines taking into account new technologies.

In Japan, the situation is that there is a public procurement system – mainly

applicable to websites – which takes into account the accessibility requirements.

Two laws, the Basic Law on the Formation of an Advanced Information and

Telecommunications Network Society enacted in 2000 and the Persons with

Disabilities Fundamental Law amended in 2004 explicitly mention about the

necessity of accessibility in governmental websites. Under the two basic laws, the

government developed Basic Plans and annual implementation plans in which

target dates are determined. One example is that e-Government system which is

under-development will increase information provisioning in accessible format in

the fiscal 2006. The Persons with Disabilities Fundamental Law also requests local

governments to develop local basic plans. Many local basic plans express their

schedule to develop accessible websites.

Parallel to the enactment of these laws, Japan Industrial Standard on Web Content

Accessibility (JIS X8341-3 Guidelines for older persons and persons with

disabilities - Information and communications equipment, software and services -

- Part 3: Web content) was developed and published in 2004. Central and local

governments refer to the above-mentioned JIS in developing accessible websites.

The JIS has sold more than 4 000 copies, which is said to be remarkable. Website

development of these central and local governments is usually contracted to

system integrators. In order to get contracts, system integrators develop and

publish free of charge web accessibility checking tools. Also system integrators

develop helper tools installed in governmental websites such as voice synthesizer

tool which “reads” website. System integrators are now eager to sell Content

Management System to central and local governments.

The number of accessible governmental websites is increasing. But problems

remain. One problem is the usability. Government websites use a lot of jargons

only understandable by government officials. One example is that a “motor bike”

is a “light weight vehicle” in the governmental websites. The other problem is that

websites are designed based on the structure of the office; therefore, people who

do not know the structure find difficulty in obtaining information. The general

usability must continue to be improved after the accessibility for people with a

disability is achieved.

The movement above has triggered accessible website development in the private

sector. Examples are websites provided by newspaper publishers.

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One interesting point is that the laws do not impose punishment. Every movement

is done voluntarily. The “greying” of Japanese society is considered to have

triggered the movements. According to the 2005 edition of the White Paper on the

Aged Society, Japanese people aged 65 years or older accounted for about 20%

of the national population and this figure is expected to top 26% (approximately

33 million people) by 2015. This big population encourages profit-making

corporations to address the needs of older persons including the accessibility

needs. There is no doubt that central and local governments also need to consider

accessibility.

This very brief summary of national legislation points to the difficulties of making

regulatory demands upon manufacturers of electronic communications equipment,

so as to influence the accessibility of terminal equipment. The problems are fewer

with services, because avoidance of discrimination in service delivery can be

demanded. The Americans with Disabilities Act in the USA stops short of a

requirement that goods should be accessible. It is ‘access to goods’, meaning the

ability to use the services of shops and other suppliers selling goods, that must be

available to people with disabilities. (The Disability Discrimination Act in the United

Kingdom adopts the same principle, but if the goods are supplied as part of a

service – for example a rented television set or an introductory service pack for a

mobile phone – then the non-discrimination obligations extend to the goods, with

the onus being on the service provider rather than the manufacturer). The

Australian Disability Discrimination Act has been interpreted by the Human Rights

and Equal Opportunity Commission to mean that carriage service providers, if they

provide equipment as part of a bundled service such as mobile phone handsets,

they are obliged to provide equipment which enables equivalent access to people

with disabilities, on the same terms and conditions (including price) as standard

customer equipment. Under section13 of the Telecommunications (Consumer

Protection and Service Standards) Act, it allows for regulations to be made

prescribing customer equipment for compliance with the Disability Discrimination

Act. Regulations have been made to ensure access to a Standard Telephone Service

with the regulations including a range of features which are provided by the USO

provider. Such features include voice amplification, a hands-free telephone, visual

alert, a handset with one-touch dial memory a lightweight handset and built-in

hearing aid coupler.

Although it is not possible in a free market to tell manufacturers what they should

make, it is possible to impose general requirements – such as those for product

safety – on the items which they do decide to make. If formal Standards that

defined a broad consensus on the concept of accessibility existed, in the manner

of product safety standards, then the situation might be different. Section 255 of

the US Telecommunications Act imposes accessibility requirements, although there

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might be debate as to what precisely these should be, but the EU has deliberately

dismantled the regulatory environment which is needed to make such rules

enforceable. Similarly, the government preference exercised in ICT equipment

purchasing could be subject to challenge if applied in an EU Member State,

because of the rules on fairness and transparency, unless the accessibility

requirements were set out in a formal standard accepted throughout the

Community. These issues will be considered in the next section.

5.1.2 The role of standards in promoting accessibility

In the European Union, the concept of using formal Standards in support of

legislation has been developed to a very high degree. This has come about largely

because of the complexities of the laws establishing the Single Market, where

detailed harmonization is effectively impossible if all of the material has to be set

out in the legislative documents. In order to overcome this problem the ‘New

Approach’ was conceived, and in the New Approach formal Standards have a very

specific role.

Standards and the ‘New Approach’ Directives

In the ‘New Approach’, market sector Directives aim to set out the legal obligations

in as broad and technologically neutral a manner as possible. Removal of non-tariff

barriers to trade, which was the primary objective of the Single Market, requires the

alignment – or harmonization – of technical requirements for goods and services.

These requirements have typically been imposed by Member States for the reasons

of safety, compatibility and quality of products placed on the market within their

territories. For products which are potentially dangerous, such as electrical

apparatus, pressure vessels or medical devices, these technical requirements may

be very specific and detailed. If these specific details were all to be set out in

Directives, the negotiation of new Directives would be excessively difficult – even

when the EU had far fewer than 25 Member States – and revisions would be

necessary at frequent intervals as new risks were exposed or new technologies

were introduced. The ‘New Approach’ was devised to overcome this difficulty by

setting out legal requirements in the broadest of terms, and then relying upon

published Standards to provide the detail.

There is a particular aspect of the use of Standards in the New Approach that is

crucial when considering their role in promoting accessibility. With very few

exceptions, the use of standards is voluntary and the linking of a particular

Standard to a Directive does not give it any legal force.

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Formal European Standards from the Standards bodies CEN, CENELEC and ETSI,

form the basis of most of the standards called up in legislation in the EU.

Compliance with a relevant standard is then ‘deemed to satisfy’ the associated

legal requirements set out in a Directive. Therefore, suppliers will usually adopt the

route of standards compliance as a straightforward and valuable means of

demonstrating that their products or services meet those requirements and are fit

for purpose. It is inherent in the nature of standards that compliance can be

checked by different organisations, in different places at different times, and the

result should be the same in each test. A compliance assessment carried out in one

competent Test House will therefore have validity throughout the European Union.

This makes the use of formal standards very convenient for assessing compliance

with the technical requirements of a Directive, but it is not the only way of doing

so. The supplier usually has the option of demonstrating, from first principles, that

the Directive’s requirements have been met, as an alternative to using a published

standard. The results may not be so readily accepted by the regulatory bodies as

would a conformity claim based upon the use of standards, but the route allows

for the acceptance of an innovatory offering that is not catered for in currently

existing standards.

This leads to a double problem when considering the possibility of mandatory

accessibility requirements in the EU. Firstly, it becomes necessary to define in broad

terms just what is meant by ‘accessibility’ as an essential requirement (in, for

example, an EU Directive), so that even without a published standard a supplier

can demonstrate that a legal requirement has been complied with. Secondly, there

is the difficulty that suitable accessibility standards are not yet readily available

except for physical access situations (such as wheelchair entry). Much work is

being done in various bodies, ETSI Human Factors Group, ITU-T (SG 26/16) and ISO

(TC 159 - Ergonomics) being just a few examples, that may eventually lead to

formal European standards suitable for complementing legislation, but there is a

long way to go. This double problem is linked to the very great diversity of function

and need that is fundamental to the areas of sensory and cognitive disability. If the

legislators cannot define ‘accessibility’ sufficiently to meet the purposes of

Directives, it is expecting a very great deal of the standards writing bodies to

remedy the deficiency. In pushing for accessibility requirements to be addressed in

equipment and services, it must be accepted that these bodies are being asked to

undertake a major task in setting out practical and achievable requirements.

CEN/CENELEC Guide 6, which is closely based upon the equivalent ISO/IEC

document, provides an invaluable starting point for standards writers but this is at

the beginning of the extended standards writing process. Furthermore, the task will

call for the closest co-operation, not only between different standards sectors such

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as disability categorization and the technical considerations, but also with user

representatives. A much closer involvement of organisations representing people

with a disability is now recognised as vital. Although the Commission is issuing

mandates for the production of relevant standards, it is already clear that this is a

non-trivial problem.

What is Accessibility?

A considerable debate has opened up on the meaning of the term ‘accessibility’. It

is not easy to define as it has acquired a range of meanings in common usage with

particular interpretations in specific contexts. However, effective and widespread

use of formal standards requires that a common meaning must be adopted. Use

of the term ‘accessible’ is even more problematic. Gregg Vanderheiden, at the Trace

Center, was pointing out in 2001 that this term should not be used without some

qualification. An offering may be ‘more accessible’, ‘less accessible’ or even

accessible to a very specific group of people, but never just ‘accessible’. We might

think of a facility as ‘accessible to English-speaking people’, ‘accessible to people

with low incomes’ or ‘accessible to people with a disability’ but, in each case, we

are silently acknowledging that it will not be accessible to all of them. Then what

is an ‘accessible’ telephone? Can there ever be such a thing? There could be a

telephone which meets all of the criteria in a published set, which is a useful

categorization but its usefulness is only as good as the criteria themselves. Any

attempt to extrapolate beyond the intended context leads to difficulties, with the

risk of finding that there are people who cannot use the so-called ‘accessible’

facility. The authors of criteria sets are generally aware of the limits of their work

but others may use the description ‘accessible’ as a convenient shortform, with the

danger that a particular set of criteria comes to be seen as the practical definition

of what is ‘accessible’.

The starting point for ‘accessibility’ is ‘usability’. Usability is taken to mean the

ability of a defined group of people to make use of the product or service. A book

is usable by people who can pick it up, turn the pages, view the content and

comprehend it. It is not usable by people who, because of disabilities, cannot

handle it or see it. If it contains text written in (say) German, it will not be usable

by people who do not understand that language. The book can be made usable for

many of these people in various ways, although it may not then be the same book,

or even a printed book at all. For all the people who are excluded from

comprehension of the book for whatever reason, it is not accessible to them and

will remain so unless steps are taken to improve its usability in their particular

circumstances. ‘Accessibility’ therefore can be regarded as a measure of the extent

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to which groups of people other than the originally intended users can be offered

the experience of using the item in question.

Two points emerge from this simple example. Firstly, with traditional technologies

the intended users are defined by custom and usage. Printed books have always

been aimed at users who can access and appreciate them, so the task of improving

their accessibility has fallen largely to agencies outside the mainstream book trade.

With new technologies there is an expectation that accessibility issues of all kinds

will be addressed at or even before product launch, which is a culture shift that is

not apparent to all. The message for developers of standards is that this is now a

mainstream issue and not something to be addressed in niche markets. Secondly,

it is not a once for all issue. Improved accessibility is a continually advancing

objective requiring constant examination of the types of people who are not given

access. The consequence is that a wider skills base is now called for in standards

Committees.

Inclusive Design - Design for All

The points raised in the previous section can be addressed by the process of

Inclusive Design, also known as Design for All. While it does not mean that all

intending users can be given immediate access, it does signify an iterative process

to improve accessibility by widening the target user population each time the

design of a product or service is re-visited. This process ought to be as fundamental

to the design function as the inclusion of quality parameters, that is, an integral

component and not a feature to be added at the last moment. As with quality,

there are general standards for the Inclusive Design process, which can and should

be cross-referenced in the standards for specific items.

Standards complementing Directives

This section has so far been concerned with the standards that amplify the New

Approach in EU Directives, that is to say, those standards which are accepted as

describing how the essential requirements of a Directive might be met without

claiming to be the only route to achieving conformity. These standards are still

voluntary, in that other methods of showing conformity with a Directive may be

utilised, although these may be less straight-forward or less convenient.

It is unusual for exact compliance with a standard to be demanded by legislation,

but there are other ways of giving a standard legal force. One such way is through

a legally binding contract and contracts in the public procurement arena offer a

most important example.

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Standards in Public Procurement

A new Public Procurement Directive, which Member States were required to

implement by 31st January 2006, replaces a set of earlier Directives and

amendments dating back to 1992/93. These themselves replaced previous

Directives. The importance of Community legislation in this area arises because

public sector contracting could otherwise lead to serious breaches of the open

principles of the Single Market. Public bodies would often frame contractual

procedures in ways that were familiar only to the regular bidders for the contracts,

and this made it very difficult for an outsider to get an invitation to tender. The

variety of national approaches and technical specifications acted as a deterrent to

bidders from other nations and such processes were fundamentally incompatible

with the Single Market rules of transparency and fairness. The Community has

devoted considerable effort to legislating for open procedures in public purchasing,

with strict rules for advertising and awarding contracts. These rules also eliminate

the use of technical specifications that would favour particular groups of bidders.

The series of Public Procurement Directives has pushed purchasing bodies towards

reliance upon European technical standards and specifications, or the national

standards which transpose them, and Member States which persisted in using non-

harmonized national standards have been fined heavily. It is possible for a public

purchasing body to use non-harmonized specifications, where there are over-riding

reasons for doing so (such as the need for compatibility with installed equipment),

but the procedures for sanctioning this are lengthy and involve additional work.

The simplest course is, as was intended, to use European technical specifications.

However, one effect of this has been to deter Member States from writing

accessibility requirements into their public purchasing specifications, as such

requirements are not commonly found in European technical standards used for

procurement purposes. Public procurement has in consequence provided less of a

lever to promote accessibility in Europe than it has in the USA, for example, where

Government purchasing has had a pronounced positive effect on the availability of

accessible ICT equipment.

The new Directive recognised this problem and it goes some way towards adopting

accessibility principles while still keeping to the fundamental rules of transparency

and fairness. Recital 29 includes the comment “Contracting authorities should,

whenever possible, lay down technical specifications so as to take into account

accessibility criteria for people with disabilities or design for all users”. It adds “The

technical specifications should be clearly indicated, so that all tenderers know

what the requirements established by the contracting authority cover”. In other

words, it is not sufficient to require that the items must be accessible in some form

or other; the manner of achieving this accessibility must be specified in a way that

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allows the tenderer to prove compliance. Recitals are not binding, but the Articles

of a Directive are. Article 23 requires technical specifications to be set out in the

contract documents, and includes the wording “Whenever possible, these technical

specifications should be defined so as to take into account accessibility criteria for

people with disabilities or design for all users”. This is expanded in an Annex,

which deals with the way in which technical specifications define the

characteristics required in the purchased items; among the listed types of

characteristics are “design for all requirements (including accessibility for persons

with a disability) and conformity assessment”.

With this new Directive it will be possible to use accessibility criteria in public

procurement even where accessible features are not immediately essential to the

purchaser’s objective. But in order to do this, there will need to be appropriate

European standards which set out the criteria unambiguously and include tests for

conformity. Developing these will entail dealing with the same issues that have

been described in previous sections. The Commission has published a mandate to

the European Standards bodies in order to urge this work forward, but there are

no doubts as to the magnitude of the task .

Mandate M/376 requests CEN, CENELEC and ETSI to develop European

accessibility requirements for public procurement of products and services in the

ICT domain. The main objectives of the Mandate are:

• to harmonize and facilitate the public procurement of accessible ICT

products and services by identifying a set of functional European accessibility

requirements for public procurement of products and services in the ICT

domain, and

• to provide a mechanism through which the public procurers have access to

an electronic toolkit, enabling them to make use of these harmonized

requirements in procurement process.

It is hoped that some drafts can be available in 2008. There will be involvement by

key stakeholder groups including disability organisations and close cooperation on

an international level with other standards bodies. This should give an opportunity

for comparison with the U.S. Section 508 Accessibility Guidelines, which are to be

reviewed in 2007.

It is especially important with public procurement standards that the tenderer is

able to know, at the time that the bid is submitted, whether the offering meets the

technical conditions of contract. Transparency rules prohibit a public purchaser

from lining up the submitted items and making a subjective choice, or even a

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choice based upon the outcome of a user evaluation. The conformity tests to which

the offerings will be subjected must be described in the tender invitation, and they

must be capable of replication in any test situation or laboratory. This places further

demands upon the Standards writers to produce precise objective criteria that are

capable of independent conformity verification.

Several European public procurement authorities have already been considering

how to address accessibility issues in their tendering and some have successfully

introduced their own sets of accessibility criteria but, in the absence of harmonized

European Standards, these criteria have to be approved case by case through a

process involving consultation with all the EU Member States. It is clear that a set

of appropriate European Standards, that can be simply called up in any invitation

to tender, has to be available before public procurement can become a really

effective lever in promoting more accessible products.

Verification and Certification

Wherever conformity to a Standard is required or claimed, there is necessarily a

procedure for verifying that conformity. The supplier may carry out his own

assessment, using the test procedure laid down in the Standard, or an independent

body may perform the testing. In EU legislation, only the most critical or potentially

dangerous products have to be tested by an independent approved test house. For

most items, a self-certification by the manufacturer or supplier is considered

adequate, and this form of certification will usually form a part of the Declaration

of Conformity that is obligatory in the Single Market Directives (leading to the

application of the CE mark). Self-certification is not an easy option. The supplier

will be guilty of making a false trade description if the claimed compliance is found

to be unwarranted, and the penalties can be severe, especially if compliance is a

legal requirement, for example as part of a Directive or a condition of contract.

With independent testing, it is the test house which is liable if the report is in error.

For this reason, many suppliers will use an independent test house rather than their

own test facility in order to achieve greater confidence in the outcome.

Mostly, however, conformity with accessibility criteria is not a legal obligation in

the EU, and sanctions are only likely to apply if a false claim is made by a supplier

in the course of trade. A supplier may make a very non-specific claim as to the

accessibility of his offerings, without referring to any particular Standard, or no

claim at all, so that disappointed users would have no redress – and no

information as to which products on the market might suit their particular needs.

In these circumstances, users have to rely upon post-market testing by evaluation

organisations, that is to say surveys and test reports aimed at giving independent

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information to consumers. The procedures here are very different from formal

conformity assessment. The evaluators are free to use whatever evaluation

protocols they consider appropriate, and will often recruit panels of users to carry

out actual or simulated ‘real life’ assessments of the products. The evaluation body

may even award its own certification mark to products that perform well, but this

is for the information of potential users and has no legal status. For as long as

formal accessibility standards are embryonic, however, there will be a possibility

that post-market evaluation of this kind is more effective than reliance upon the

standards. In other words, the standards themselves need to be tested.

Quality Standards

There is an extensive and well-established set of European and International

Standards dealing with quality. Quality, like accessibility, is not a fixed quantity; a

product or a service may be intended to have a particular quality level. The object

of quality assessment (or quality assurance) is to ensure consistent quality at the

desired level. Quality approvals are given to suppliers by registration bodies, who

periodically audit the in-house procedures operated by those suppliers to ensure

that they are both robust and fully observed. This process could be applied to a

supplier’s approach to accessibility issues, for example by writing an accessibility

assessment section into the Design Manual and the Production Manual. The same

results could be obtained from a quite separate registration system, but this may

be superfluous if an Accessibility Guide could be drafted for inclusion in the already

familiar structure.

5.1.3 Conclusion

The thrust of European Regulation in the ICT sector has been primarily to support

the principles of the Single Market and to recognise the contribution of this sector

to the European economy. Consumer protection elements have concentrated upon

privacy and confidentiality matters, with some acknowledgement of public service

issues such as universal service in telecommunications. However, the latter has

tended to centre upon legacy notions of fixed line telephony practice and little

heed has been paid to newer technologies which have been rolled out unevenly

across the EU Member States. Liberalization of the former state monopoly

networks has created a division between networks and terminal provision, such

that the market for terminal equipment is now driven almost entirely by market

forces. The regulatory regimes are chiefly concerned with the avoidance of anti-

competitive practices and, while the commercial freedoms have encouraged a

vigorous development of new and attractive services, those consumers who are not

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well served by the forces of a highly competitive and innovative market have little

protection. Chief amongst these disadvantaged consumers are those disabled and

elderly people who have little economic power and consequently find that their

needs go unheeded. The future trends in regulation are now being determined but

it seems that the ultimate direction is likely to be one of less regulation to suit a

global market-place, rather than one of more regulatory control over the EU’s

internal market.

If this is to be the scenario, it poses the question of how best to protect the

interests of disadvantaged users without hampering innovation and investment.

Horizontal anti-discrimination legislation would be one approach but it would

appear that the expanding EU Community is not yet ready for this. An extended

and up-dated concept of universal service would be another; the EU has plans to

look at this in 2007. Writing specific requirements into existing Directives, as they

come due for review and revision, would also be possible but the scope is limited

because of the diversity of needs and the necessity of keeping the basic types of

legislation technologically-neutral and future-proofed.

A quite different approach – which is not mutually exclusive – is to make use of

other forms of leverage which could influence the attitude of commerce and

industry towards disadvantaged consumers. Awareness of needs and business

opportunities is one such. The population size is considerable and although there

is a great range of needs – not to be met in a single action – there is potential for

a growth in market share with relatively small changes in design concepts. The

Inclusive Design/Design for All approach is based upon this notion, with a gradual

– not a sudden – expansion of the target user base until, with repetition, a much

larger segment of the general population is catered for.

The effective use of standards is crucial to such approaches. Even where standards

are voluntary, it is usually in the best interests of manufacturers and suppliers to

comply with them rather than seek to support their product claims by other means.

In public procurement contracts, standards take on a legal significance that can

influence a supplier’s attitude towards serving his other customers. The inclusion of

Inclusive Design/Design for All principles in a whole range of standards should

become as commonplace as reference to quality standards. The scope is enormous

and so is the task, for there is need of many more standards that take account of

accessibility needs of people with a disability in the ICT sector. However, there are

many bodies worldwide that are giving serious attention to this task and, with co-

operation, a raft of European Standards that could support and complement

regulation will eventually appear. Not least, standards are an important force in

industry and trade, which is why these sectors are actively involved in preparing

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them. Causing the Standards Organisations to take a pro-active role in looking at

accessibility issues for people with a disability will automatically engage the

industry bodies.

There is good reason to believe that this process has not only begun but is

gathering momentum.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to acknowledge the help and support from the following

persons who contributed in the development of this chapter: Gunela Astbrink,

Hajime Yamada, Gregg Vanderheiden, Jim Tobias, Erkki Kemppainen, Robert Hecht

and Jan Engelen.

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5.2 eAccessibility: European developments and targets

Ima Placencia

5.2.1 Introduction

We live in an information society. Information and Communication Technologies

(ICT) permeate almost every aspect of our lives. They can be powerful tools for

bringing people together, adding new value to life and creating new wealth,

health, welfare, making for a richer and more rewarding professional and social

life.

However, in Europe (and elsewhere) millions of people cannot fully reap these

benefits and a significant percentage are effectively cut off from them: today,

people with disabilities are estimated to make up close to 15% of the European

population or 90 million people. Many of them encounter barriers when trying to

use ICT products and services. In fact it is difficult to imagine how people with

disabilities would be able to enjoy their fundamental rights when accessibility to

ICT is not a reality.

The prevalence of both disabilities and other minor functional limitations is

strongly related to age. It is estimated that 45% of those persons above 75 years

of age are impaired in one way or another in their daily life. The ongoing

demographic shift in Europe, as a result among others of a greater life expectancy,

will cause a noticeable increase in these numbers over the coming years -- 18% of

the European population was aged over 60 in 1990, while for 2030 that

percentage is expected to rise to 30%.

Accessible (ICT) can improve the quality of life of people with disabilities

significantly.

The European Commission has the ambitious objective of achieving an Information

Society for All. This means overcoming the barriers that technology creates for

people with disabilities, elderly people and many other users. The Commission

wants to ensure an inclusive digital society that provides opportunities for all and

minimises the risk of social exclusion.

To achieve the goal of developing such an Information Society for all it is necessary

to pay attention to groups at risk of exclusion because of accessibility problems,

namely to people with disabilities and in certain cases older persons, who form a

large group that represents about 20% of the population in Europe.

* Disclaimer: The views expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official European Commission’s view on the subject

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5.2.2 The eAccessibility Communication

The Community relevance of this subject is well reflected in the initiative launched

in 2005 that is called “i2010 – A European Information Society for growth and

employment”. The i2010 initiative presents a new strategic framework and broad

policy orientations to promote an open and competitive digital economy,

emphasising (ICT) as a driver of inclusion and quality of life. One of the 3 pillars of

the i2010 initiative is intended to develop “An Information Society that is inclusive

provides high quality public services and promotes quality of life”.

In order to raise the visibility and provide policy guidance on these issues the

Commission proposes, among others, to publish an eAccessibility Communication.

The Communication was published on September 13, 2005. The main objective of

this Communication is to promote a consistent approach to eAccessibility

initiatives in the Member States on a voluntary basis as to foster industry self-

regulation. Two years after the publication of the Communication a follow-up on

the e-Accessibility situation will be made. The Commission may then consider

additional measures, including new legislation if deemed necessary. Community

action is needed to ensure the inclusion and participation of all Europeans.

In the context of achieving the goals of the Lisbon agenda it is important to

mention that large differences exist in employment rates of people with disabilities

when compared with the general average in the population in Europe. While 52%

of people with disabilities are economically inactive the average in the general

population is 28%. Furthermore 42 % of people with disabilities are employed

compared to a general average of 65%.

Considering the European goal of improving the level of employment of people

with disabilities, and the fact, reflected in the European competitiveness report of

2004, that average government employment is 16,7 of total employment in EU 15

(some countries go up to 30%), with general expenditures in 2003 of 49% of GDP

it is evident that governments have an opportunity to promote employment of

people with disabilities through accessible workplaces.

Coordinated action by EU Member States is needed to make information and

communication technologies more accessible to people with disabilities and older

persons.

Public consultation

The Communication took into account the answers of a public online consultation

in the domain of eAccessibility launched in January 2005 by the European

Commission. The respondents provided a good coverage of the target groups

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users, industry, public authorities and accessibility experts. It is important to

mention that 55% of the respondents were experts or professionals in the area of

accessibility and 1 out of 4 respondent stated that they were users of some kind

of eAccessibility product or service. Furthermore, 90% of the 500 respondents

(public agencies, ICT goods and service suppliers, u n i v e r s i t i e s, b u s i n e s s

associations and user groups) say that requirements to make (ICT) goods and

services accessible to elderly and disabled people should be laid down in public

procurement contracts. Stakeholders also say that EU institutions should take the

lead in proposing these measures (88%). Although there is clear support for some

form of product certification or a “labelling” scheme (72%), stakeholders are fairly

evenly divided on whether this scheme should be voluntary, mandatory, and/or rely

on self-certification with checks.

5.2.3 New eAccessibility approaches

In the Communication, the Commission fosters the use of three approaches not yet

widely used in Europe as well as strengthening and continuing several activities

that are already underway.

The three new approaches are:

1. Public procurement:

The revised Directives on public procurement contain specific references to using

Design for All and accessibility requirements as possible criteria for selecting

among tenders. There is a strong need for consistency of accessibility requirements

in public procurement in Europe in the ICT domain. The experience in the US with

section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act has shown the positive influence of public

procurement in promoting accessibility. The European public sector ICT average

spending is 0.8% of the GDP. The European Commission held an international

workshop on harmonisation of eAccessibility requirements for use in the public

procurement of ICT products and services. Main findings are summarised in a

publicly accessible report:

http://europa.eu.int/information_society/policy/accessibility/regulation/

index_en.htm.

Taking all this into account, the European Commission proposed to the Member

States the development of a European standard for a toolkit for eAccessibility

requirements to be used in public procurement. A mandate was issued at the end

of 2005 to the European standardisation organisations CEN, CENELEC and ETSI.

The work for the Mandate is expected to have started by the end of 2006.

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http://europa.eu.int/information_society/policy/accessibility/deploy/pubproc/

eso-m376/index_en.htm.

The main objectives of the mandate M-376 are to harmonise and facilitate the

public procurement of accessible ICT products and services and to provide a

mechanism through which the public procurers have access to an electronic

t o o l k i t , enabling them to make use of these harmonised requirements in

procurement process.

Even though the most significant field of application of the results of the mandate

is public procurement, the results might be useful for other purposes like

procurement in the private sector. Public purchases constitute an important market:

total public procurement in the EU (15) amounts to €1.500 billion or 16% of the

Union’s GDP.

The work will be done by two combined project teams, an ETSI Specialist Task Force

(STF) and CEN Project Team (PT).

The work of ETSI will consist of:

• An inventory of ICT products and services (grouped in technical areas) that

are usually bought by public procurers

• A list of existing functional accessibility requirements in Member States and

internationally for those ICT products and services within each technical

area, particularly those currently in use in public procurement

• In each technical area gaps will be identified where no accessibility

requirements exist and suggestions will be provided for developing missing

or additional requirements

• A list of existing national, European and international standards and

technical specifications will be identified which might comply with those

requirements. An assessment will be made on whether the above mentioned

requirements can be used as either technical specifications or as criteria for

awarding public contracts

• Finally a proposal will be made for a standardization work programme for

the development of requirements and award criteria that still do not exist.

CEN will establish a Project Team to provide an analysis on testing and conformity

schemes of products and services meeting accessibility requirements. The analysis

will refer to existing schemes of this nature at European and international levels.

The analysis will consider the full range of possible solutions, including supplier

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s e l f - d e c l a ra t i o n , certification/ accreditation of suppliers, and third party

certification schemes.

The results of both CEN and ETSI will be submitted to open public consultation and

will be approved by both organisations.

In this context of accessibility and public procurement, a dialogue has been

established between EU and US on the “Exchange of information regarding the

planned use of ICT standards in support of Regulations and other Public policies”,

in the field of Accessibility policies.

2. Certification:

Possibilities for the development, introduction and implementation of certification

schemes for accessible ICT products and services will be explored. The goal is to

provide guidance to customers and recognition to manufacturers and service

providers. The various possible schemes will be investigated and the different

options will be compared for their effectiveness. In that context the International

workshop on conformity assessment supported by the Commission in 2006

clarified the need for clear, unambiguous testing methodologies that lead to

consistent results whether the testing is done in house or by third parties.

In the above mentioned mandate the Commission has asked the European

standardisation organisations to prepare a report that will present an analysis on

testing and conformity schemes of products and services meeting accessibility

requirements. The analysis shall refer to existing schemes of this nature at

European and international level. The analysis shall consider the full range of

possible solutions, including supplier self-declaration, certification/ accreditation of

suppliers, and third party certification schemes.

The analysis shall also address existing or propose requirements for suppliers’

technical capacities and abilities in the accessibility domain, which can be used for

the selection of suppliers or in support of the conformity process. The intention is

to submit this report to an open and accessible review process to facilitate

feedback from all interested parties.

It is important to mention that in the 2005 consultation of the Commission

mentioned before, there was a clear support for issues like accessibility certification

and labelling but with a significance variance between 80% support in groups

related to “public agencies” and individuals with disabilities, only 61% of

manufactures providers or sellers support it while 32% reject it outright.

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3. Explore legal measures.

Legislation demanding accessibility exists already in some Member States and in

countries outside Europe. This trend is increasing. There is risk of market

f ragmentation if accessibility requirements are similar but yet with small

divergences, this should be avoided in Europe. In Europe, several legislative

documents already have provisions which can be used to enforce eAccessibility.

The full potential of this legislation will be be explored in order to advance

eAccessibility in a coherent manner.

The new regulatory framework for electronic communications entered into force in

July 2003.

Under the New Regulatory Framework a committee called the Communications

Committee (COCOM) with Member State representatives was established to assist

the Commission in exercising its powers. In February 2003, the COCOM

established a special working group called Inclusive Communications (INCOM).

Throughout its work, INCOM has focused on the user perspective, identifying the

constraints and problems users with disabilities face in accessing and using

electronic communications as well as potential problems and opportunities

relating to new and future technologies and applications. The new regulatory

f ramework contains a series of rules and principles that ensure that the

liberalisation of the electronic communications market does not occur at the

expense of end-users, but brings benefits to them. It assumes that competition and

market forces are the most effective means to satisfy user needs, but provide

national regulatory authorities (NRAs) with the necessary powers to act to protect

users where they need to do so.

Disabled users must enjoy the same rights arising from the Directives as any other

end-user. This applies whether these rights stem from the provisions relating to

universal service obligations placed on designated undertakings or from other

specific provisions (e.g. number portability) which allow end-users to derive

maximum benefit in terms of choice, price and quality.

This INCOM report refers to areas, where users have encountered serious

problems. Some are directly related to articles in the Directives, in particular the

Universal Service Directive and the Framework Directive but some go beyond the

Directives. The key urgent topics identified are:

• Access to national emergency services

• Access to telephone services for deaf/hard of hearing/speech impaired/deaf-

blind persons

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• Access to public pay telephones

• Access to mobile telephones

• Access to directory services

• Access to broadcasting, digital television and related services.

The report provides a series of recommendation to address each of the issues and

solve these accessibility problems suggesting concrete actions by public

authorities, regulators, industry, operators and users.

The mandate of INCOM was subsequently extended to foster the implementation

of the suggestions laid down in the above mentioned report and to provide input

on accessibility matters in the revision process of the Electronic Communication

Directives package.

In April 2005, a questionnaire was sent to the Member States through COCOM on

“the Electronic Communication Package: issues related to disabled users”. The aim

was to assess the implementation of the legal provisions dealing with disabled

users in the Member States, to ensure follow-up of the key problems identified in

2004, and to identify best practices.

The information provided through the questionnaire reveals that the problems

identified in the 2004 report remain, confirming the frequently disadvantaged

situation of disabled users in Europe, in relation to availability, choice, quality and

price of electronic communications. Furthermore, there is very often a lack of

information in the Member States on the practical situation of disabled users vis-

à-vis access to and use of publicly available telephone services, and of the

problems they are confronted with in everyday life. As a consequence, the national

provisions do not – or seldom – address specifically disabled users’ concerns.

Furthermore, the implementation of the provisions of the Directive into national

legislation has often appeared to be a “copy-paste” exercise of the compulsory

provisions, while the potential of the non compulsory ones have not been

exploited.

More worrying is the fact that the problems identified in 2004 do not seem to have

been addressed since then as there is still no comprehensive solution in all

Member States for disabled users to call the single European emergency number

112; the accessibility to public pay phones is not addressed in a harmonised way

in the Member States; text telephones used by deaf users are not interoperable

across Member States or across networks; etc.

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Some countries are showing some examples of Best Practices by adopting specific

measures in the interests of disabled users. For instance, some Member States

impose special tariffs to ensure affordability for disabled users; some countries

propose text telephones and relay services for deaf and hearing impaired users;

some countries impose a legal obligation to provide terminal devices enabling

hearing impaired people to access publicly available telephone services, free access

to information services for visually impaired users, special telephone number for

deaf users to access 112; some countries impose an obligation upon service

providers to provide copies of contracts and bills in a form suitable for visually

impaired customers. However, there does not seem to be a comprehensive and a

coherent action to address the needs of people with disabilities. One of the

probable reasons for this could be the lack of information in the Member States

about the situation of disabled users.

The INCOM group made a set of the recommendations that will be

provided as input to the review process.

In the current legislative framework, telecommunication terminals fall under the

Radio and Terminal equipment directive. The group of Member States

representatives that support the implementation of the Directive is called TCAM. In

2004, in order to improve accessibility of terminals and to address the issue of real

time text communication, discussions were held in TCAM on the need for

regulation to ensure accessibility to telecommunications services. Notably the

aspects of real-time text communications related to cross-border (and

international) communications and access to emergency services (112). Market

forces have as yet failed to ensure seamless service, interoperability and access to

112. There furthermore was a risk of fragmentation resulting from national

procurement practices and financial support structures. In March 2005 a subgroup

was created with Industry and NGOs and were given the task to propose a road

map to identify and tackle bottlenecks in this area. There were 2 working groups,

the first one on accessibility requirements for conversational systems for deaf and

hard of hearing persons in particular text and video communication and the second

on accessibility features of mainstream products. The results of both groups were

inconclusive. While there were very relevant technical contributions it was evident

that no agreement was reached on the drafting of a road map. Furthermore, it

became apparent that industry was not in a position to commit to a roadmap.

Demonstrations made at the recent meetings show that technical solutions are

possible in the area of text communications. These use the flexibility offered in

current state of the art terminals that have multimedia capabilities to provide real

time character by character text communication. Investments to run the service

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seem moderate and mainly consist of running a server and develop some add on

software for the terminals. These systems are however still in the trial phase and

therefore charge and management costs are as yet unknown.

These solutions have been developed nationally with local funding, but moreover

are not interoperable among themselves or across networks and are often platform

dependent. They provide a limited solution for a local community often driven by a

user organisation. They furthermore are not designed to interface with mainstream

instant messaging services (e.g. MS messenger) and their users therefore are

deprived from using a single messaging service

As regards the accessibility features of mainstream products, it was observed that

currently add-ons such as separate key boards do not have standardised interfaces

and remain device or platform specific. Technologies responding to disabilities

other than hearing impaired, seem to be less developed. In addition user

associations, that develop special solutions report on difficulties to get information

on terminal proprietary software and note inconsistencies in functionalities of the

interfacing making it difficult to interact with assistive technologies.

Since the attempts to arrive at a voluntary roadmap have failed, TCAM should now

consider which consequences should be drawn.

It remains uncertain whether market forces will lead to a level of harmonisation

that will enable seamless and ubiquitous services and interoperable terminals.

Public authorities, certainly where they are supporting certain technical

developments, should give prominent attention to the need for seamless cross-

border and multiplatform services.

TCAM is reflecting on the adoption of regulations under article 3.3.f, which would

ensure that no barriers are caused by terminal equipment to establishing pan-

European interoperable services and proposed the committee an outline for a first

Commission Decision to address these issues. The Commission is consulting the

Member States and further action will depend on the results of these discussions.

5.2.4 Ongoing activities at EU level

Several types of actions have been promoted by and supported by the Commission

for more than 10 years having a clear impact on eAccessibility in Europe. However

it is clearly identified that further action is needed in this field. In order to reach the

goal of a Knowledgeable and Sustainable European Society for A l l , t w o

fundamental challenges must be met to continue making new technologies and

technology-based systems accessible to all and continue to apply technology to the

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task of genuinely empowering all citizens to play a full role in society. Designing

ICT products and services from the very beginning so that they can be used by the

widest possible population following “Design for all” methods instead of

retrofitting accessible solution is essential for the creation of a sustainable

Information society for all.

1. Accessibility requirements and standards. European Standards on eAccessibility

would contribute to the proper functioning of the Single European market. The

Commission continues to support the development of Accessibility standards also

in the ICT domain while at the same time promoting their implementation and use.

2. Design for All: It is important to spread widely the knowledge and use of Design

for All methods, practices and tools. Introducing Design for All in the education of

future information society professionals is a way of investing in a more accessible

information society. The Commission is promoting the work on the ICT European

Curriculum in Design for all and enhancing the cooperation of key actors through

the EDeAN network created under the eEurope action plan. The basic skills and

knowledge for a European Curriculum for “Design for All” has been developed by

the idcnet project http://www.idcnet.info/home The results can be found at the

European design for All and eAccessibility network of National Centres of

Excellence (EDeAN): http://www.edean.org which provide a resource centre in

Design for All and exchange of information on courses. Furthermore in order to

raise awareness on Design for All, the European Commission issued the first

European Awards “Innovation in Design for All and Assistive Technologies” at the

REHACARE International in Düsseldorf in November 2004,

3. Web accessibility : The eEurope 2002 Action Plan included one action line on

improving the accessibility of public Web sites by adoption of the Web Content

Accessibility guidelines (WCAG 1.0) developed by the Web Accessibility Initiative

(WAI) of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). The nominated actors for this

action line were The European Commission and the Member States. Th e

Commission produced a Communication1 including many recommendations for

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . Other EU Institutions responded to this Communication,

supporting the actions undertaken and suggesting further measures. One of the

actions requested by the Council is a common methodology for the evaluation of

the progress made in order to obtain comparable data. To date all the Member

States and EU institutions are applying the guidelines to public sites at European

and national however, a common monitoring mechanism is still to be put in place

the results of the various studies however show agreement on the fact that there

is still a very low level of accessibility on the public web sites in Europe today. There

is a need to have results of the monitoring exercises published in order to

1COM(2001) 529 final of 25.09.2001

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benchmark the improvement in Europe. Benchmarking will stimulate each country

to energise their process.

Also in the long run, accessibility should not be treated as a separate issue but

should be integrated in relevant government activities in particular all global Web

quality control mechanisms at all levels (Web masters procedures, administrations

audits, etc).

Furthermore, the need to formally assess and certify accessibility of public web sites

has emerged as a priority in the Member States after the adoption of the Web

Accessibility Guidelines and is currently under exploration. A number of projects

are developing a European methodology to monitor web accessibility of public

websites in Europe: project BenToWeb, http://bentoweb.org/home ; Project EIAO,

http://en.ftb-net.de/projekte/eiao.html; Project Support-EAM, http://www.support-

eam.org; The first version of the methodology has been released in October 2005.

The Information Society is rapidly developing to respond to these changes, the WAI

is now preparing its second version of the guidelines, to follow these technological

d e v e l o p m e n t s. The Commission is supporting the research work on web

accessibility

in

W3C

through

Project

like

the

WAI

T I E S

http://www.w3.org/WAI/TIES/.

4. Benchmark and monitor. The eAccessibility Communication recognised the need

to set targets for accessibility and monitor progress. Several Member States are

introducing benchmarking for accessibility and monitoring in their national

legislation. It is essential to have European data comparable across Member

States. In order to measure eAccessibility progress in Europe the Commission

issued a study with the objectives of identifying measures (e.g. policy, legal,

industrial, …) that have a significant positive impact on eAccessibility and that

support the Community eAccessibility strategy. The idea is to assess how ICT

products and services available in Europe take into account eAccessibility and

Design for All. The study will develop indicators to assess the eAccessibility

situation in Europe and to measure its evolution quantifying the impact of the

proposed approaches and measures. Furthermore it is important to assess the

implementation of successful measures, that can serve as policy recommendations

in the eAccessibility domain.

Some of the expected results are the identification of existing methodologies and

indicators and the development of a methodology to monitor and identify the

existing use of the 3 proposed approaches mentioned above and other existing

positive actions.

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A methodology and adequate indicators will be developed to measure the rate of

eAccessibility in the Member States, experienced by people with disabilities and

older people, as well as the rate of eAccessibility, experienced by other

stakeholders.

The first measurement and analysis of the data is expected by the end of this year.

A second measurement and analysis of the data will happen a year later and this

will enable measurements to be compared and evolution to be assessed. The final

report including conclusions and policy recommendations and two workshops to

disseminate and validate the results of the methodology, measurements and the

conclusions will serve to provide evidence for the report that the eAccessibility

Communication announces for two years after publication.

5. Research remains a key instrument to investigate new technological solutions to

address the needs of people with disabilities and older persons. It is a fundamental

element in the way towards an accessible Information Society for all.

DG Information Society and Media has worked since 1991 in Research and

Technological Development for people with disabilities and older persons in several

programmes: Tide (technology initiative for disabled and elderly. Basically in 15

years about 200 Million Euros have been spend in funding approximately 200

projects in all areas of eAccessibility dealing with technologies for people with

disabilities and older persons. Projects have developed Assistive solutions including

restoration and enhancement of function, access to technology and related

services, life at home and remote care, access to mobility and transport,

applications services for elderly and disabled users and for their carers, Design for

All of mainstream ICT and Long Term Research on a deeper understanding of the

c o g n i t i v e, perceptual and sensory processes in relation to disability and

technology), and within the Framework programmes.

The European Commission has issued several call for proposals within the 6th

Research Framework Programme. On going RTD projects can be found at

http://www.cordis.lu/ist/so/einclusion/home.html

The first call for proposal for FP7 is under preparation. In the Commission proposal

for the 7th RTD Framework Programme there is a section called ICT and inclusion

that addresses inter alia disability and ageing (see more at

http://www.cordis.lu/ist/so/einclusion/) as well as a proposal for an initiative based

on Article 169 particularly relevant for older persons with multiple disabilities. As

technology evolves and new ICT products are introduced in the market on one

hand new opportunities for accessibility emerge. H o w e v e r, RTD work on

eAccessibility remains essential to prevent new accessibility barriers and develop

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state of the art assistive solutions. Many of the above policy actions that have been

and are undertaken complement RTD work and are important for the take up of

RTD results in the market so that they can be incorporated in products in the

market.

Finally, the Commission will measure progress on eAccessibility and present a

report in 2 years proposing new measures including new legislation if deemed

necessary. This action is part of the i2010 initiative.

Regarding the involvement of disability organisations and disabled users, although

there is no mandatory requirement, since 1991 it has been common practice to

involve them at the consultation level when preparing the work programmes, at

the evaluation level (inviting experts with disabilities in evaluations) and in the

project execution level.

5.2.5 Conclusion

The commitment of the Member States and the European Commission towards the

actions carried out under the umbrella of i2010 and announced in the

eAccessibility Communication have been confirmed by the Riga declaration.

h t t p : / / e c . e u r o p a . e u / i n f o r m a t i o n _ s o c i e t y / p o l i c y / a c c e s s i b i l i t y / e i n c l / p o l i c y / 2 0 0 6 -

riga/index_en.htm

Member States agreed not only to support the actions proposed in the

eAccessibility Communication but also to explore the possibility of making

mandatory by 2010 European eAccessibility standards and common approaches in

public procurement for ICT products and services.

Furthermore they confirmed their commitment to ensuring accessibility of all public

web sites by 2010, through compliance with the relevant W3C common web

accessibility standards and guidelines.

Finally, during the next two years the Commission will continue to raise awareness,

promote the use of the proposed instruments, gather evidence and consult

stakeholders in order to take informed decisions in the eAccessibility domain. This

work will be used by the Commission to evaluate policy options and identify

additional measures if deemed necessary to improve the eAccessibility domain.

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6. The role of evaluation of accessibility

6.1 Introduction

Steve Tyler

A key objective of COST 219ter is to devise a mechanism through which industry

can engage with and deliver on the development of devices and systems that are

accessible to the widest possible audience. Not only do we want to ensure full

accessibility to people with disabilities or for those that find technology challenging

to use (to allow full participation in modern society and life), but there is clear

evidence that by engaging this market with products that are genuinely usable,

take up and income generation possibilities are potentially extremely lucrative.

Marketing in this particular sector is notoriously challenging not least because

manufacturers and service providers are not clear about the benefits of their

products, not clear how to assess benefits and usability, and not clear which

channels to use to guarantee maximum effectiveness. As a result, the sector as a

rule has been treated as "niche" or "specialist".

This is odd since in fact users with any form of disability largely want to be a citizen

and communicate with people in the same way as everyone else does. The needs

of user groups are no different in terms of services in many cases - but the way in

which products are used or interacted with may be very different.

Additionally, it is clear in any research in this area that good accessibility and

usability design is good accessibility and usability for all users. Many of the

products we take for granted today are direct results of well-designed products

originally developed for the disability community; they have stood the test of time

either because of good design principles or because they address user

requirements that turn out to be very mainstream - OCR systems, the typewriter

(qwerty keyboard of course being a natural derivative) and the original

gramophone are all good examples.

Understanding the challenges of and working with the manufacturing and service

provider industry has led the COST 219ter Action not only to focus on what we

mean by accessibility and usability for end users, but most importantly, how we

could devise systems and processes that industry could follow - systems and

processes that could be easily implemented, that fit in to frameworks of testing

and evaluation that already exist.

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To achieve this most comprehensively, the team:

• Worked closely with industry through discussion and presentation to

understand next generation products, device development timescales and

processes, and costs around delivery

• Established latest mainstream research indications of future technology

direction along with checking with industry

• Built up a picture of how industry expected users to be taking advantage of

new technologies along with scenario building and testing of these

assumptions.

As a result of this work, this chapter describes the process by which we arrived at

the development of the evaluation toolkit - a toolkit we believe is probably the

most valuable way of achieving our objective - and we believe the objective of the

service provider and manufacturer community - selling more good quality, well

designed products that will appeal to the maximum number of users.

We adopted the following process:

• Establishing how manufacturers used their own testing facilities and/or

testing laboratories across Europe

• Establishing where they were located

• Sending a questionnaire that painted a picture of the regular work currently

undertaken as well as the level of existing knowledge in the subject of

accessibility

• Home in on the subset that displayed some accessibility knowledge to find

out if there were any existing best practice methods or protocols currently

used.

Having trawled for knowledge in the field, a similar exercise was conducted in the

disability community across organisations and research institutions. From this

work, a team of Ergonomist’s derived an industry usable methodology that could

be imbedded in to standard practice and that would measure the accessibility of

network services and terminals.

In new and next generation mobile services, networks are often intrinsically linked

to the handsets, often using back-end systems that represent information to users

appropriate to the device, browser, etc. Services and devices are inextricably linked

and form a unified offering. Evaluating these poses real challenges. The next

sections describe how we arrived at our methodology as well as giving a current

example of accessibility testing and the benefits it can bring to design principles.

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6.2 Evaluation trends

Edward Chandler, Elizabeth Dixon and Steve Tyler

An initial piece of work was undertaken to establish what types of evaluation or

usability assessments were carried out by test houses, industry laboratories and

other institutions that currently conduct testing on behalf of manufacturers.

It is clear that testing and evaluation for usability or ergonomic design does take

place in some domains more than others - Web Accessibility Testing for example is

extremely common as an approach to legislative compliance or good user

experience. This and other areas were examined to assess whether or not there

were usable tools that were transferable into the telecoms industry.

Finally, an existing methodology currently being used by RNIB that adopts a pan-

disability approach was modified and tested with live users to find out if it was

possible to achieve a high correlation between real user experience and reported

results on the one hand and the expert evaluation toolkit output on the other,

modified through experience of this project, the toolkit could be validated.

6.2.1 Review of web accessibility evaluation

Julio Abascal, Myriam Arrue, Markel Vigo, Elizabeth Dixon and Steve Tyler

From the inception of the W3C (Worldwide Web Consortium), the Web Accessibility

Initiative played a vital part, in that it has played and plays a monitoring role with

a keen eye on accessibility. As new guidance and recommendations are produced

by Consortium members, accessibility testing and accessibility requirements are

added in to the emerging recommendation.

As a result of this approach, the methodologies and toolkits developed in this

sphere are instructive since accessibility is so closely allied to anything published

by the consortium. Furthermore, the web as a carrier and distributor of information

or a network from which telecoms and personal devices derive information, plays

an increasingly important role in telecoms services - directly or as a value-added

provider.

Vital lessons can be learnt from the evolution of the evaluation of web pages for

accessibility. The evaluation of the web page involves the evaluator(s) initially

checking the web page against a set of accessibility guidelines manually. This was

found to be laborious at times and prone to errors with the guidelines being

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frequently misinterpreted. Therefore in order to help speed up the evaluation

process and minimize potential errors some of these guidelines were automated.

These tools are usually in the form of a software program or online service.

Telecommunication devices may also benefit from having such tools to use as a

basis for a wider approach to accessibility evaluation.

Tools for automated web accessibility evaluation (including those for repair) are

currently very advanced. These tools are usually able to search the (X)HTML code

to check the accomplishment of accessibility guidelines. Other features, such as

CSS or XML code conformance with standards can also be automatically checked.

The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 1.0 [Chisholm et al, 1999]

issued by WAI are recognised worldwide as useful recommendations for web

accessibility evaluation. Marincu and McMillan, 2004 state that these guidelines

are now a reference point in achieving Web accessibility in many of the E.U.’s

member states.

Some countries have released their own interpretation of these accessibility

guidelines. E.U. member states which have included or adapted the WCAG 1.0 into

their web accessibility program include:

• Ireland whom have the Irish Guidelines for Web Accessibility

• UK where guidelines can be found for UK Governmental Web sites

• France where there is the Circulaire du 7 octobre 1999 relative aux sites

internet des services et des établissements publics de l'Etat

• Germany, which implements the Barrierefreie

Informationstechnik–Verordnung

• Sweden, which conforms to its own guidelines known as the “Vägledning

24-timmars webben 2.0”

• Italy, the “Stanca Law”, passed in February 2006, which forces Italian

government agencies to make their Web sites fully accessible.

In the USA there is the "Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act in the USA" which

provides the equivalent information to the WCAG.

Nevertheless, due to the different formats and structures used for defining

accessibility guidelines, interpreting them and determining the possible conflicts

between them require a great amount of effort from web developers. Moreover,

the ambiguity and the low level of expressiveness in the definition of some

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accessibility guidelines may result in different interpretations of the same

guideline. In this situation, web accessibility evaluation is a complex task which can

be simplified by using an automatic accessibility evaluation tool.

There are several free automatic evaluation and repair tools such as WAVE and A-

Prompt which are based on specific accessibility guidelines sets. These evaluation

tools have a strict guideline specification since guidelines are implemented within

the evaluation tool. However, there are some more flexible evaluation tools that

are able to verify the accomplishment of any set of guidelines specified in a

machine-readable language, usually a version of XML such as GXML [Abascal et

al, 2004], GDL [Bereikdar et al, 2005] and GAL [Leporini et al, 2006]. This allows

for easy updating to the last version of accessibility guidelines, to define specific

guidelines for groups of users such as the elderly [Kurniawan et al, 2005], and also

to evaluate any other characteristic that can be expressed using the adequate

language.

Research to create or adapt tools that can automatically evaluate the accessibility

in other domains can provide a first step for people interested in accessibility

evaluation. In this way, experiences with automatic evaluation of the accessibility

of web content can be transferred to a limited extent to evaluate web pages for

small screens. This can be used as a first step forward to enlarging the field of

automatic accessibility evaluation. In this sense, Mobile Web Best Practices are

being discussed and a web accessibility evaluation tool has been adapted in order

to evaluate mobile web interfaces [Rabin and McCathieNevile, 2006 and Arrue et

al, 2006].

It is evident that the possibility of performing a considerable part of the

accessibility evaluation automatically would make it cheaper and more popular. For

this reason, efficient tools and sound methods are needed to facilitate all phases

of a complete evaluation. For instance, one of the problems of manual evaluation

is reporting the results in a way that is useful for developers. Therefore, evaluators

– experts and users – must be provided with tools for reporting accessibility

failures in an efficient and understandable way.

A conclusion that can be drawn from this is that testing and compliance or

usability tools can be written for wider software applications and platforms.

Accessibility checkers and methodological toolkits are being developed for

Microsoft Windows programs focussing on such issues as "Is there a keyboard

shortcut for all mouse commands?", "Does the software conform to standard

keyboard expectations (e.g. Alt - o for open?)" etc.

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Clearly this can be extended to mobile phone and PDA handsets - indeed, the

Symbian 60 phones and most other products from Nokia conform to a common

look-and-feel interface.

In the web environment, although much can be automated, experience shows that

real user testing or at least a clear methodology carried out by experts is still the

most accurate mechanism for establishing the accessibility level of a website

and/or software.

Next generation mobile devices will become more reliant on mobile web-based or

wireless services - the interaction between phone software, network based services

and web-based (external) systems will become more seamless - accessibility and

usability testing in all of these environments will become crucial if the end user

experience is to be a pleasant and productive one. A joined up holistic approach to

accessibility testing is therefore crucial.

6.2.2 Current trends in accessibility evaluation

Web accessibility evaluation has provided an exemplar of the widespread

resources available which developers can use to develop accessible web sites.

However, for the evaluation of other products and services, accessibility evaluation

is still very much in its infancy with little resource available to assist. To determine

the extent of the problem it was crucial to establish what the current trends in

industry were by:

• Investigating which organisations evaluate for accessibility

• Investigating how much industry really knows about evaluating for

accessibility

• Where they exist, establishing which evaluation methodologies are being

used

• Establishing which areas of industry are being evaluated.

To fulfil the objectives a two stage questionnaire process was carried out:

• Stage one identified how many of the most likely and what types of

European organisations there were, how many knew about accessibility

evaluation and how many evaluated next generation network services and

terminals for accessibility

• Stage two identified that of those that stated that they did know about

accessibility testing, which methodologies organisations were using and

which domains were being evaluated.

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Two hundred European organisations that tested products or systems received the

stage one questionnaire. Of these, only twenty-six responded. Tw e n t y - f o u r

organisations informed COST 219ter that they conducted research into the

accessibility of next generation network services and terminals for disabled and

elderly people. The results showed that of the twenty-six respondents, nineteen

performed evaluations in usability and accessibility, with four evaluating for

accessibility only and three evaluating for usability only. Finally twenty-three

organisations agreed to take part in stage two of the process. A list of

organisations that test/evaluate accessibility can be found on the COST 219ter

website (http://www.cost219.org).

The second stage questionnaire was distributed to the twenty-three organisations

that agreed to take part. Twelve of these responded. The results showed that

popular methods used included questionnaires, interviews, observations, focus

groups, expert groups and panels, task analysis, user groups and user panels,

scenarios, prototyping and finally heuristic evaluations. This information links well

with the literature, which cites all these methods as popular [Stanton et al, 2005].

Popular areas of industry that were found to be evaluated included; mobile phones

and services, telecommunication services, s o f t wa r e, c o m p u t e r s, P D A’s and

handsets, and finally, smart homes.

The results of the questionnaires suggested that there was only a limited amount

of work being carried out into the evaluation of next generation network services

and terminals for accessibility with fewer than 15% responding to the first

questionnaire. Interestingly, the results from the first questionnaire showed that

most of the organisations evaluated for accessibility and usability with only a

minority stating they only tested for accessibility or usability. Further information

about the findings of the questionnaires can be obtained from the report written

by Anna-Liisa Salminen on the COST 219ter website (http://www.cost219.org).

The results also showed that a variety of methodologies were used covering

various domains for evaluating next generation of network services and terminals

for disabled and elderly people.

Finally, the results of both questionnaires evidently make it clear that the

evaluation of next generation network services and terminals is only being

conducted to a limited degree. The research has demonstrated that although a

number of evaluation methodologies exist and are being used, it is not obviously

apparent that any are thorough and specific enough to evaluate mobile phones for

accessibility and ease of use across various disabled user groups and the elderly

population in any depth.

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6.2.3 Methodologies used by COST 219ter members

As part of the process of looking at current trends in industry for evaluating for

accessibility of next generation of network services and terminals, it was important

also to investigate what members of COST219ter were currently using. The Royal

National Institute of the Blind (RNIB), a member of COST 219ter, had indicated that

it carried out extensive evaluations on products and systems, including mobile

phones. COST 219ter felt that the methodology used by the RNIB should be

reviewed to understand it in greater detail and determine if anything could be

learnt from this evaluation methodology. The aim of this work was to determine if

a methodology exists which is suitable for recommendation for implementation

across industry by COST 219ter.

This visit identified that RNIB carried out extensive user evaluations on products to

ensure that they were accessible for blind and partially sighted people. From the

knowledge and expertise gained from these evaluations, RNIB created a simple set

of guidelines as a means of assessing products initially without involving end users.

However, these guidelines had some shortfalls. Firstly, they were not specifically

aimed at next generation mobile phones and as such were not detailed enough to

cover the exact requirements needed to fully evaluate a device such as a mobile

phone. This included the physical aspects unique to a mobile phone, the operating

system and the services that users can access from their mobile phone. Secondly,

these guidelines only considered the needs of blind and partially sighted people

and finally, the guidelines were only written at a very top level without any detail.

Further information about the findings of this work can be obtained from the

report written by Kristian Kristiansson on the COST 219ter website

(http://www.cost219.org).

After further analysis, it was decided that the evaluation method used by RNIB

showed potential for being used by COST 219ter for evaluating next generation

mobile phones. In order to fulfil the objectives of the Action it was recommended

that these guidelines be adapted to address the above issues.

Analysis showed that the specialist organisations that carry out evaluations of any

description in the blindness sector across Europe did not have as robust a

mechanism as used by RNIB and it was clear that certainly within the sector in

Europe, its techniques were verifiable, consistent and replicable in terms of

methodology and result.

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6.2.4 Suitability of these methodologies for implementation

across industry

The results of the COST219ter research showed that at present there is no

evaluation methodology that addresses the needs of disabled and elderly users for

ensuring that next generation mobile phones are designed to be inclusive.

Therefore a toolkit is needed to address this gap to ensure that mobile phones are

developed to be as inclusive as possible.

Whilst this toolkit needs to evaluate accurately and effectively the accessibility of

a mobile phone, it also needs to be usable by the person or persons using it.

Without the usability of the toolkit being accounted for, there would be a danger

of having a solution which would not be accepted by the telecommunications

industry due to its own complexity. Therefore any toolkit should not assume prior

expertise or knowledge, yet it should be easy to understand and complete.

The research has shown that a toolkit could be proposed using RNIB’s evaluation

guidelines as its foundation. Such a toolkit would need to encompass the

accessibility needs of various disabled user groups and also need to be developed

so that it is aimed specifically at next generation mobile phones.

The example of automatic evaluation has been advantageous in web site

accessibility. This example deserves attention to determine if similar tools can be

produced to evaluate the accessibility of mobile phones particularly for evaluating

the accessibility of mobile web pages. This would satisfy manufacturers who do not

wish to extend design and manufacturing times whilst satisfying the needs of users

that are currently being excluded from using mobile phones.

6.3 Mobile phone evaluation toolkit

Edward Chandler, Elizabeth Dixon and Steve Tyler

The toolkit is a simple methodology which is capable of evaluating the accessibility

of a mobile phone. The toolkit comprises three sets of heuristics which cover the

basic accessibility features of the physical part of the phone, the operating system

and the services.

Each set has approximately 14 heuristic principles (rules of thumb). For each

principle, checkpoints are given to objectively measure the accessibility/usability of

the device against a set pass/fail criteria. Accompanying each set of heuristics is a

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completion form which includes a fail criterion for each checkpoint. It also shows

whether or not the checkpoint is a high or low priority and provides a comments

s e c t i o n . F i n a l l y, it includes a section for any additional information and

recommendations for future work on that phone. The heuristic principles are as

follows:

Hardware principles

• Promote easy identification and orientation of the product

• Provide clear print (visual information)

• Provide clear visual information (non print)

• Promote the location of the buttons, switches, dials, and joysticks by sight

• Promote the location of the buttons, switches, dials, and joysticks by touch

• Promote the location of the connectors, sockets, battery, battery

compartment/back cover, SIM card holder, memory card and memory card

holders by sight

• Promote the location of the connectors, sockets, battery, battery

compartment/back cover, SIM card holder, memory cards, memory card slot

by touch

• Provide clear tactile information (texture/size/differences)

• Promote clear audible information

• Enable the battery, SIM card and memory card to be used easily

• Enable the product to be physically easy to use

• Promote compatibility with other devices

• Provide clear Instructions

• Provide easy to use packaging.

Software principles

• Allow choice over the input and output method

• Optimise the input method

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• Optimise the output method

• Allow personalisation of the input

• Allow personalisation of the output

• Allow personalisation of the alerts

• Promote flexibility

• Promote consistency

• Provide easy to understand menus

• Provide intuitive prompts and informative feedback

• Promote easy to use soft keys

• Aid recovery and prevent errors

• Promote easy connectivity and compatibility with other devices and/or

software

• Aid task completion.

Web services principles

• Allow flexible access to the service

• Enable user style sheets

• Optimise colour and contrast

• Use text effectively to improve readability

• Consistent page layout

• Provide content that can easily be scanned

• Easy to use navigation

• Provide meaningful links

• Provide accessible forms

• Use JavaScript carefully

• Promote accessible multimedia

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• Provide informative feedback and prompts

• Aid recovery and prevent errors

• Aid task completion.

Further information about these heuristics and their checkpoints can be obtained

from: www.cost219.org/toolkit.

It is important to remember that these heuristics may be applied at any time during

the design phase or at later stages of the development process or once a product

has been released to market. However, it is recommended that these guidelines

should be applied as soon as an initial mock up or paper prototype of the device

becomes available to minimise design costs.

This toolkit should never be used in isolation as a total evaluation process for

evaluating mobile phones. It is intended to highlight basic accessibility issues

which currently inhibit disabled users from using a mobile phone.

6.3.1 Development

When the toolkit was in development, it was clear from previous work that the

scope of the toolkit needed to be closely specified, it should be a simple

methodology capable of evaluating the accessibility of a mobile phone and finally

it would have to be validated against end user requirements.

Prior to commencing work on the toolkit, it was important to carry out a scoping

exercise defining the parameters of the toolkit. Evaluating a mobile device could

potentially include a vast array of possibilities. Therefore as part of this process the

following questions were addressed:

• What would be the main focus of the toolkit?

• What is the common core functionality found across different mobile

devices?

• How would a toolkit cater for the growing and varying array of functions

across devices?

• How can the toolkit be designed to be future proof (what are the key

functions that are likely to persist in the future?) Would there be an

increase of multimodal access to mobile phones?)

• Could the toolkit cover all user needs yet remain usable?

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To take all these points into consideration, adapting and creating a toolkit to

address every functionality/service would be impractical. Therefore rather than

adapting the toolkit to cover every possibility, the scope of the mobile phone

evaluation toolkit was limited to cover:

• The physical part of the mobile phone (hardware)

• The core functionality (including the operating system and the software

installed)

• Mobile web based services.

Additional guidelines would be needed in the future to cover other functionalities

such as GPS software. These have not been included at this stage as it is likely that

these would require separate guidelines specific to technologies and deployed

services. Another area likely to require guidelines is for the creation of accessibility

advice for SMS services. However, it is vital to focus on the core functionality of the

phone first so that disabled and elderly users can use the phone.

The toolkit includes a list of guidelines for creating accessible mobile web services

that are provided over the mobile internet. These guidelines build on the

foundations already in place for web accessibility for larger screens.

In order to develop a simple methodology it was decided that detailed checkpoints

should be provided under each heuristic principle to guide the eva l u a t o r

completing the evaluation with the type of issues to check for, as well as providing

a completion form alongside the heuristics for ease of completion. During the

development of the toolkit the heuristic principles were adapted to accommodate

their new checkpoints for each principle.

Several types of mobile phones were analysed during the development of the

heuristics and their accompanying checkpoints so that a range of different phone

features could be accommodated by the methodology.

As part of this work the RNIB worked alongside other parties close to disabled end

users. These included the Swedish Handicap Institute, The Royal National Institute

for Deaf people (RNID) and Special education and Rehabilitation department of

faculty of Human Kinetics (FMH), Lisbon. The Swedish Handicap Institute drafted

their own set of heuristics for people with learning difficulties. RNID and FMH,

Lisbon provided recommendations to consider the needs of deaf and hard of

hearing users, people with limited dexterity and people with learning difficulties.

Each organisation provided recommendations in the form of checkpoints which

they felt needed to be added. These were inserted under the relevant heuristic

principles.

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It was vital that the guidelines accurately reflected the accessibility issues that most

users frequently found so these guidelines could be used to accurately evaluate a

mobile phone. This would enable evaluators with practically no prior knowledge of

accessibility issues of mobile phones to be able to use these guidelines to identify

and resolve frequently found accessibility issues.

Once a full set of heuristics was available, it was essential that the heuristics were

validated to determine whether they accurately evaluated the accessibility of a

mobile phone. This validation involved comparing the results of the heuristic

evaluation against end user requirements. The results of the comparison would

show whether the heuristics and their checkpoints were successful in identifying

accessibility shortfalls in a mobile phone.

6.3.2 End user evaluation and toolkit validation

The aim of the validation was to identify whether or not the toolkit was successful

at identifying the accessibility issues which users found during the evaluation.

In order to achieve the validation of the toolkit, a project was organised which

would perform an evaluation of a mobile phone using the toolkit as well as an in-

depth end user evaluation. This study encompassed four user groups:

• Blind and partially sighted people

• Deaf and hard of hearing people

• People with limited dexterity

• People with learning difficulties.

These users were recruited by Intercollege in Cyprus, the Special education and

Rehabilitation department of faculty of Human Kinetics (FMH) in Portugal, RNID

and RNIB in the UK. The results were gathered using focus groups, interviews and

questionnaires for each group of end users. The results of the user trials in the UK,

Cyprus and Portugal were amalgamated and then compared with the results of an

expert evaluation using the heuristic principles. Further information about the

findings of this work can be obtained from the report written by Edward Chandler,

Elizabeth Dixon, Leonor Moniz Pereira and Cristina Espadinha on the COST 219ter

website (http://www.cost219.org).

During the evaluation, there were a number of unexpected results. A summary of

these has been highlighted below as well as a summary of the validation study as

a whole.

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In general, the blind and partially sighted participants found they could dismantle

and assemble the phone although most had not done this before. These

participants stated that they would get a friend/relation or shop assistant to

dismantle and reassemble the phone due to the perceived complexity of the task.

As well as this, most of the UK based blind and partially sighted people had

avoided predictive text before the evaluation as they found it impossible to use.

However, the majority of the blind and partially sighted group thought that using

predictive text was fairly easy to do and would consider using it more. These results

were mimicked by the participants with learning difficulties too.

Other unlikely results were linked to menu customisation. The results showed that

most users wanted to be able to move menu items as required. This showed that

these users liked to make the phone easier to use for them in terms of menu

structure. Linked to this, there was almost a 50/50 split between whether to display

the menu as a grid format or as a list format. These results highlight the need to

make the operating system of the phone highly customisable.

Finally, the results showed that nearly all of the participants liked to change

profiles on their mobile phone. There was a strong demand from end users to be

able to alter how the mobile phone responds in different environments. This

highlighted the importance of user profiles and the benefits of user profiling.

The comparison of the results between the toolkit evaluation and the end user

evaluation confirmed whether or not the toolkit provided guidance for the type of

problems that users typically found. It showed where the toolkit matched typical

problems that users found, as well as highlighting any areas where the results did

not match. Checkpoints which did not match were highlighted for review.

The validation study has shown that generally the toolkit match what users with

disabilities require to determine if mobile phones are accessible and easy to use.

The study also identified that additional work was needed to refine some elements

of the checkpoints further. This would make the toolkit more precise.

6.3.3 Outcomes

An evaluation methodology has been designed which can assess the accessibility

of a mobile phone. This evaluation methodology uses a series of heuristic principles

with detailed checkpoints, which can be used to identify the level of accessibility

of a mobile phone. The checkpoints have been specifically designed to evaluate the

features of a mobile phone only and would need to be modified further to evaluate

another product or system.

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This methodology can be used to evaluate a mobile phone when it is being

designed, the most ideal use of it being during other testing protocols or design

checking, or when it is out on the market. It can also be used by someone who has

limited or no prior knowledge of heuristics and evaluation for disabled people as

the toolkit guides the person completing it.

As the toolkit has been validated with end users, this is a robust method of

evaluating the accessibility of a mobile phone.

We will monitor the effectiveness of the toolkit as new generations of technology

emerge and modify it accordingly.

6.4 Case study: an example of how evaluation may change

the design: ATM project in Portugal

Leonor Moniz Pereira, António Cordeiro, João Brisson Lopes,

Cristina Espadinha, Manuel Ribeiro

6.4.1 Introduction

In today's society ATM machines play an important role in providing financial

services at any time, facilitating daily life routines to a large number of people.

However, people with disabilities and elderly people may experience many

problems using them.

In fact some services may be unavailable to certain groups, e.g., payments and

other services not designed with the needs of people with blindness, motor

impairment, learning difficulties, those who are cognitively impaired or even the

elderly in mind during design.

According to Gill (1998) people with disabilities and elderly people may have

accessibility problems using ATMs at least in one of the following behaviours:

• locating a terminal (ATM)

• accessing the terminal

• reading and understanding instructions

• inserting the card

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• reading the screen

• using the keypad

• using the touch screen

• listening to audio output

• reading printed output

• retrieving the card.

Some disabilities have a stronger direct impact than others on the individual ability

to use ATMs. The ability may also change in accordance with the level of

impairment.

With the intention of improving the situation of ATM usage for disabled people in

Portugal, SIBS (Portuguese Inter-bank Society) sponsored the project. SIBS is

responsible for the software of all ATMs available in Portugal, and influences the

acquisition and the installation process of all the service providers

The project was developed and coordinated by the Technical University of Lisbon

during 2005. Three faculties were involved in this project: the Design department

of Faculdade de Arquitectura (Faculty of Architecture), the Computer Science

department of Instituto Superior Técnico - IST (School of Engineering) and Special

Education and Rehabilitation Department of Faculdade de Motricidade Humana -

FMH (Faculty of Human Kinetics).

6.4.2. Objectives and Methods

The project aims were:

• To identify areas of software improvement and development of new software

• To create guidelines for the installation process

• To establish some recommendations for the acquisition of new ATMs.

In order to identify the needs of people with visual, motor or cognitive Impairment

and elderly people, a set of questions were generated:

• What services need to be improved?

• What services do not exist and need to be implemented?

• What are the users’ priorities?

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• What are the activity limitations imposed by equipment design and

installation which may be solved?

• Which environmental barriers may be avoided?

In order to answer these questions, an inclusive design approach was used which

focused on the following work areas:

• The analysis of accessibility and usability of ATMs for the elderly and people

with disabilities (blind, partially sighted / low vision, learning difficulties /

cognitively impaired, people with mobility or dexterity or arm movement

limitations)

• The development of an interface which meets user’s requirements

• The creation of a checklist covering the installation and interaction of ATMs

and the available services

• The production of recommendations for good practice, follow up and future

issues.

In order to cross-reference information and check data consistency, a combination

of methods was used (interviews, questionnaires, focus groups and observation of

user performance).

To prepare the interviews, the questionnaires and the user trial protocol, a survey

of ATM’s was carried out as well as a task analysis of the different ATM services

focusing on the interaction process (by vision, touch, sound and keyboard usage).

Considering the critical points observed previously, interviews with two users of

each group were carried out. These were used to identify potential missing aspects

and to ensure that the user’s point of view was taken into account. Based on this,

a questionnaire was developed in order to identify difficulties and constraints of

ATM usability.

The results from the interviews and questionnaires were applied to a trial phase

where alternative hardware and software solutions were assessed and validated

with an ATM test bed. For this phase, users were asked to trial the most commonly

used services and express their opinions.

Finally, a set of recommendations was established.

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6.4.2.1. Questionnaire

The questionnaire comprised three parts. The first part dealt with user data (gender,

age, profession, level of education, etc). The second part dealt with ATM usage

focusing on the critical issues enumerated below and the third part related to

improvements that the user would like to see in the future.

The critical issues in Part II of the questionnaire cover:

• ATM location and environmental access including lighting conditions, light

glare on the screen, etc.

• ATM design and location of devices – keys beside the screen, command

keys, keys’ layout, the cash and receipt dispenser, card entry, etc.

• Interaction

• Use of touch screens

• On-screen prompts versus keyboard responses

• Reading display or using alternative cues (tones and sounds) or alternative

expectations whilst performing the service task (e.g. reading from left to

right and up to down in the occidental culture)

• The time given to perform more complex tasks like payments

• Dialogue analysis

• Audio interface analysis.

The majority of the questions required a “yes” or “no” answer or a classification

using a 1 to 5 Likert scale. In a group of “yes” or “no” questions there was also

an area for users to highlight the three most critical issues. It was also possible to

add additional comments that the users considered important which had not been

elicited.

The questionnaire was distributed to associations of disabled persons, day centres,

clubs and other institutions frequented by elderly and disabled persons. It was

completed by the user or by the researcher if he/she was not able to do it by

him/herself. An electronic version of the questionnaire was developed and

distributed to blind people.

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6.4.2.2. User Trials

The main objective was to check if the potential solutions for the user’s problems

improved significantly or made ATM usage possible.

The trial was composed of three stages. An interview took place to identify the

users’ main concerns and priorities in relation to ATM usage; the users performing

two scenarios, which were explained to the users beforehand; interactions were

tested.

User performance was recorded in two different ways. An automatic log file was

produced every time a key was pressed (giving information about the number of

mistakes and time spent to perform the task), and information was noted

regarding quality of the performance (effort, insecurity, and remarks). The last

stage consisted of a final interview to evaluate accessibility and to identify the

most important issues from the user’s point of view.

6.4.2.3. Sample

The questionnaire sample was completed by 346 disabled people. Of those, 74

were blind or partially sighted (44 were blind and 30 partially sighted), 74 had

motor impairments (25 were wheelchair users, 28 used assistive walking devices,

9 were amputees, 7 had limited dexterity and 5 used an electrical wheelchair and

had limited dexterity), 118 were cognitively impaired and 80 were elderly people

(aged 65 or over). 206 of the participants were ATM users and 150 were not. Deaf

and hard of hearing people were not included in this study as all ATM terminals in

Portugal can be operated using visual information.

The user trial group included elderly people, blind and partially sighted people,

people with learning difficulties, people with limited dexterity, people with limited

arm movements (range of movement in the elbow and shoulders) and people with

limited mobility.

A sub-sample of 24 people was selected from the participants who had completed

the questionnaire to perform the user trial. The purpose of this was to determine if

the solutions enable disabled users to use ATM's or improve usage for all users or

whether some of the alternatives would prove problematic for other user groups.

The sample consisted of people who experienced at least one of the following

barriers/perspectives:

• Difficulties pressing a key and introducing a card in a slot

• Wheelchair or any walking assistive device usage

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• Height less than 1.35 m or more than 1.85m

• To be able to read small sentences and numbers or “read” using audio

systems

• To be able to follow instructions

• Older than 80 years of age.

6.4.3. Summary of Results

The participants were asked to provide reasons why they wouldn’t use an ATM.

Below is a summary of these reasons.

Fear of being robbed:

• 83% of visually impaired participants (this is primarily due to the lack of

privacy when using audible information)

• 77% of elderly participants

• 66% of mentally impaired participants.

Not handling their own money or needing help getting money from the ATM:

• 97% of mentally impaired participants

• 90% of visually impaired participants

• 81% of elderly participants.

Not trained to operate the ATM:

• 53% of mentally impaired participants.

Could not use the ATM (reach the buttons, see the screen or get to the ATM):

• 92% of mobility impaired participants

• 90% of visually impaired participants.

The ATM is installed to high from the ground:

• 84.6% of mobility impaired participants.

The Card entry slot is installed too high from the ground:

• 77% of mobility impaired participants.

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The keys situated next to the screen could not be reached:

• 69% of mobility impaired participants.

The participants were asked to comment on the equipment design and installation

of the ATM. Below is a summary of the comments by participant group.

Comments by visually impaired participants on the design and installation of

ATM’s:

• 90% stated glare and contrast with the background especially in bright

daylight was a problem

• 55% stated non numerical keys which are not always in the same position

(enter clear and cancel) made the ATM difficult to use

• 51% stated that identifying the place to insert the card on different ATM

models with different layouts was difficult, without any additional

information

• 50% stated not having enough information about ATM location (orientation

information to where they are in relation to the ATM)

• 38% stated that identifying the place of money withdrawal on different

ATM models with different layouts was difficult, without any additional

information.

Comments by mobility impaired participants on the design and installation of

ATM’s:

• 85% stated that the installation was generally considered too high which

made reaching card insertion and screen-side keys difficult

• 85% stated glare and contrast with the background especially in bright

daylight was a problem

• 79% stated that obstacles such as kerbs, ramps, steps as well as other

obstacles around the ATM made it difficult to use

• 71% stated that it was difficult to use the ATM whilst carrying mobility aids

and papers related to using the ATM

• 68% stated that there was not enough space to stand and move whilst

using the ATM

• 67% stated not having a hand rail was a problem

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• 62% stated difficulties getting to ATM’s located within the foyer of a bank

as a problem

• 56% stated not being able to get their wheelchair under the ATM so they

could access it from the front was a problem

• 46% stated that buttons which are related to the screen are difficult to

reach and press.

Comments by Mentally Impaired participants on the design and installation of

ATM’s:

• 79% stated glare and contrast with the background especially in bright

daylight was a problem

• 55% stated difficulty in determining what the tactile symbol meant in

relation to the button functionality.

Comments by elderly participants on the design and installation of ATM’s:

• 83% stated glare and contrast with the background especially in bright

daylight was a problem

• 71% stated that it was difficult to use the ATM whilst carrying mobility aids

and papers related to using the ATM

• 34% stated that difficulty in determining what the tactile symbol means in

relation to the button functionality.

A summary of the main interaction difficulties experienced by visually impaired

participants:

• 91% stated font size and shape

• 89% stated the foreground/background contrast

• 63% stated the system timing out before a task was completed.

A summary of the main interaction difficulties experienced by mobility impaired

participants:

• 87% stated the system timing out before a task was completed

• 80% stated reading a high positioned screen.

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A summary of the main interaction difficulties experienced by mentally impaired

participants:

• 39% stated PIN code memorisation

• 30% stated the system timing out before a task was completed.

A summary of the main interaction difficulties experienced by elderly participants:

• 36% stated the system timing out before a task was completed.

The following comments were also obtained about the design and installation of

the ATM:

• Lack of audio information when ATMs are not operational or service

availability (e.g. ATM temporarily out of order or without money)

• Lack of consistency on audio information to perform the task

• Poor default sound level and no method of adjusting the volume

• Sound option unavailable for some operations

• Poor illumination in many ATMs

• Difficulties in understanding when it is necessary to press keys near the

monitor or the ones on the keypad

• Difficulties in understanding and memorising the symbols used on the non

numerical keys

• Difficulties in understanding the more complex dialogs.

Practical application of evaluation and recommendations

The users involved in the trials did not show signs of dislike or discomfort towards

the adaptations of the ATM, for instance, the ATM installation in lowered position

for tall users.

Moreover, the lowered ATM installation was considered an advantage for small

users because it allows them to use their body as a shield against sun reflexes or

against other people that can stare at the operations with bad intentions.

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The evaluation showed the following solutions as being beneficial to the users:

• Allow the user to change the ATM profiles according to their needs (e.g.

press 1 to activate a symbol based system, 2 for simple text based system)

• Use standard 3.5” headphone sockets

• Provision for everyday headphones to be used for accessing the audio

services

• Spoken information of all on screen information that can be activated by the

user

• Interactivity of the ATM with mobile devices

• Card insertion and cash withdraw at the same level of the keyboard

• Tactile information on the pavement to indicate the location of the ATM

• ATM installation in a lowered position

• Wheelchair users can access the ATM from the front rather than positioning

themselves parallel to it

• The ATM screen should be angled so that more people can read the screen.

In summary, the main recommendations of the research were:

• Interior lighting should be given to inform users about the ATM operational

status

• Provide tactile clues in the surrounding environment leading towards the

location of the ATM (floor surface built with different materials, colour

and/or texture)

• Give clear access to the ATM with 1.50 m wide path around it (less than 6%

longitudinal slope and 2% transverse slope)

• Incorporate shelters for ATMs located outside to protect them from

environmental conditions

• Provide labels and instructions. All labels should be both pictographic and in

Braille (Braille labels should be positioned at least with a 45 degree angle

from the horizontal plan, to facilitate fingertip reading)

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• All external features that are interactive (such as the keypad, card entry slot

and cash retrieval slot) should be placed in a middle central position, to

minimize the users’ arm movement

• The audio jack socket (3.5 mm) should be located in the lower left corner

• Provide a key that the user can use to adapt the ATMs to their preferences

(e.g. press one key to have audio feedback, or to use only the numerical

keypad) before entering the card

• Cards are embossed and have a notch incorporated in the trailing edge

• The audio feedback feature should:

• Automatically be activated when the audio jack is plugged in

• Describe the ATM layout and services

• Speak all information that is displayed on the screen

• Ask for confirmation of any action before carrying it out

• Before the system times out, the last message that was displayed or heard

should be repeated

• Read the total amount inputted as well as the individual numbers

• Add more languages, besides Portuguese.

6.4.5 How evaluation will change the ATM project design in Portugal

The project finished with a presentation of the results to SIBS and all the

recommendations and results were welcome. SIBS asked the partners to

disseminate the findings to the Portuguese banks in order to facilitate the

establishment of the installation procedures. Moreover, they have shown interest

to influence the next ATM machines acquisitions of more accessible models. At the

present moment SIBS is analysing its software and upgrading it in order to reflect

the project recommendations.

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6.5 Recommendations

Steve Tyler and Edward Chandler

This chapter has identified that involving users and evaluating for accessibility and

usability is paramount so that the needs of the users are met. This work has

identified a number of recommendations which should be carried forward by the

telecommunications industry and interested standards groups to achieve inclusion

by the largest audience possible in services and terminals for next generation

mobile networks. These are outlined below.

1.

Utilisation of the Toolkit: the toolkit has been developed for utilisation by testing

laboratories, designers, in-house evaluation, etc. The toolkit has been shown to be

robust and accurate and it allows industry and manufacturers alike to get a broad

idea of product fit to user requirements. The approach adopted is derived from a

well tested methodology focused in determining the accessibility of products and

services by people with disabilities.

2.

User Interface Profiles: the concept of user interface profiles is further developed

and adopted by service provider and manufacturer communities (this concept can

be broadly defined as: "a set of parameters that can be altered or implemented

that allow a device to deliver or receive information using alternative interfaces").

See opportunities section for more information.

3.

User Interface Consistencies: as the links between service provider and

manufacturer become ever tighter and more seamless, so the need for consistency

in operation becomes greater, certainly ideally within manufacturer products. A

simple example of this might be the long key press of key 1 access voicemail as a

speed dial function, or menu behaviours that are consistent throughout the

system. The simplest test of this concept is to take any two of a single

manufacturer's products - by learning the first, it is theoretically possible to use the

second. The best examples of user interface consistency include Nokia Series 60

and 80 products.

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It is recommended that:

• Manufacturers/service providers adopt consistent user interfaces across

product groups or families

• To adopt and build on the guidance given by the Australian Communications

Alliance in its ACIF C625:2005 “Information on accessibility features for

telephone equipment.”

In addition, it is further recommended that a certification mechanism is utilised,

ideally one currently in existence, that embraces accessibility and user requirements

of this kind. Mechanisms of this nature do currently exist such as in the Microsoft

certification process; the Symbian Signed process is an example of a mechanism

that could be used.

4.

User Testing: Although the toolkit is designed to give accurate and robust,

replicable information, user testing and user panels are ideal ways of ensuring that

a product really does meet user requirements in terms of access. There are various

ways of obtaining these and information is available at http://www.tiresias.org to

facilitate field tests of this nature. It is recommended that user trials should be built

into any manufacturing and development process encompassing the needs of

people with disabilities.

5.

Toolkit Guidance Development: It is recommended that:

• The toolkits currently recommended are adopted, updated and refined by

the telecommunications industry in collaboration with appropriate

organisations representing disabled people

• Further toolkits specific to other domains are researched and developed.

6.

Within the toolkit developed by COST 219ter and in all research surrounding the

area of accessibility, it is clear that the issue of access by people with varying

abilities can only satisfactorily be dealt with through implementing optional

alternatives to information output and input. This can be done through building

support into devices that enable multimodal input and output. It is recommended

that:

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• Open standards, drivers and communication protocols are developed such

that devices can support alternative ways of inputting data (for example

alternative keyboard devices, joysticks etc)

• Open standards, drivers and communication protocols are developed such

that devices can support alternative data output methods (for example

screen readers, larger screens, or specialist assistive devices).

The recommendations above support access to telecommunications systems by

communities of people who would otherwise be classified as a “niche market”; by

adopting open and supportive standards, people using specialist or niche assistive

devices can access mainstream products through these bridging tools.

7.

As an absolute minimum it is recommended that:

• At least one product in any given range or family is manufactured adopting

the design principles outlined here

• Manufacturers and retailers outline the benefits of product features in a way

that consumers can readily comprehend including making information

available in alternative formats (for example audio, large print and Braille)

• To put in place systematic and regular disability and equality awareness

training of staff members and training on the accessibility features of the

products and services being marketed and sold as well as awareness raising

of customers and audiences with varying access needs.

In order for mainstream access to become a reality for the vast market of people

with disabilities, standard advertising and delivery through retail outlets is a way

of breaking the circle which currently exists - There is no market as there are no

products. This of course does not mean to negate preferred look and feel of

products that manufacturers wish to promote - in fact, entirely the opposite; in

general, people with disabilities or older people want to access the same devices,

services and systems that friends and colleagues are accessing.

8.

To commit to continuous and structured dialogue and consultation between

industry bodies and all users – including people with disabilities and older people.

This mechanism would review and report on the progress in activities aimed at

building a full inclusive telecommunications sector.

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6. The role of evaluation

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9.

It is recommended that:

• At the standards setting stages, to commit to incorporating CEN/CENELEC

Guide 6 (the various aspects of disability that should be taken account of by

standards makers); and

• Product developers to follow the standard for Inclusive Design - BS7000-6

(Design management systems. Managing inclusive design) or equivalent.

6.6 Opportunities and Challenges

Steve Tyler, Edward Chandler and Tony Shipley

As a result of the research and work carried out in COST 219ter and specifically

the work attached to the toolkit development, a number of issues have emerged

which would seem to present opportunities for research, development and

standards groups as well as some challenges to us as a telecommunications

industry in meeting the needs of users. These are outlined below.

1.

User Interface Profiles: as an output to research being carried out by COST 219ter,

the concept of "user interface profiles" appears to be gaining momentum and

from a user perspective the potential of this development is extremely great.

This concept can be broadly defined as: "a set of parameters that can be altered

or implemented that allow a device to deliver or receive information using

alternative interfaces".

The simplest example of how this approach operates is as follows:

Case Study 1

A totally blind user on receipt of the phone switches it on. The phone displays and

announces itself and offers various settings either in user oriented language or

interface oriented language. For example: "How would you prefer to access the

screen - select from the following options". The options may include audio output.

If audio output is selected the various third party screenreader offerings can be

made and downloaded on request to the phone.

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Case Study 2

A user who has dexterity problems accesses the phone for the first time. On this

occasion, he has a specially designed point and click device. On being asked how

he wishes to input information to the phone he might pick the "alternative access

device". A selection of these would be displayed and the appropriate drivers

downloaded to the phone.

Case Study 3

A user has vision. Figures released from mainstream sources (Microsoft)

(Vodafone) indicate that just below 50 per cent of users cannot access the screen,

either due to not being able to understand the concepts, or not being able to read

the letters on screen. Simple magnification, colour contrast, iconic based menu

items, extra written help, etc, are possible solutions for this user.

2.

Out of the Box: although it is vital to ensure good usability and accessibility

functionality in terminals and services, it is vital to ensure accessibility has been

considered from the point of customer interaction with the sales chain and

onwards through the experience. For example, the idea of large print, audio or

Braille user manuals being available or an audio help system (phone based),

obvious and unconfusing ways that allow connection to power chords or chargers,

consistent placement of sockets with obvious visual and raised symbols, are crucial

considerations in design. Uncomplicated pictorial or descriptive text in Getting

Started manuals mean a quick start as well as easy access to those better suited

to accessing text compared to graphics, and vice versa.

The out of the box experience for a person with disabilities or alternative user

requirements is at least as important as that of an able-bodied person. The

dividends in getting it right first time though are very much greater - user loyalty

to the brand is likely to be substantially greater if a product appears to be

accessible from the outset without a struggle.

3.

Devices are able to deliver any piece of information in at least two modalities

( a u d i o, v i s u a l , tactual etc). Subdivisions may also be implemented when

considering any one of the modalities (for example various fonts, background and

foreground colours, size of text and icon versus text information; or in the audio

modality, volume, pitch, speed, level of punctuation).

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4.

There is a need to research and develop a set of acceptable logos, kite marks or

certification which clearly articulate to the consumer the type of accessibility

offered by the product.

5.

There is a need to put in place an ongoing mechanism to review requirements for

accessibility features, standards and guidelines, providing up to date and clear

guidance on product and service development in a dynamic marketplace. This

ongoing work could be supported by industry and part of its commitment to

accessible design.

6.

Equality and disability access: in a number of countries notably the United

Kingdom, USA, Canada and Australia, among others, varying levels of disability

discrimination legislation as well as additional duties such as the Disability Equality

Duty mean a need to comply with a variety of legislative frameworks. It is clear

however that although different requirements exist at present the need to address

access for people with disabilities is rising up the agenda on a global level. We

need to devse a mechanism that allows global manufacturing and service provider

companies to make decisions in developing products safe in the knowledge that

legislative duties are met.

G e n e ral anti-discrimination legislation of the kinds mentioned imposes an

obligation to treat a disabled person no worse than any other member of the

public. The manner of treatment is not specific and anyone who can prove their

case can claim redress in the courts of civil law, but only within the scope set by

the legislation. The courts will come to a view as to what does constitute

discrimination in particular contexts, usually through a body of established case

law, and this will develop over time as cultures and technologies change. Anyone

defending such an action may cite published standards or codes of practice to

show that their attitude had been reasonable, so it is crucial for all parties that

these standards and codes are updated in line with public expectations.

Compliance with specific standards or codes might be a regulatory requirement in

certain jurisdictions and a demonstration of this compliance - by use of test and

appraisal procedures - would satisfy the regulator. It would not necessarily satisfy

the civil courts, especially if the regulatory requirements were out of date or

inadequate. Awareness of disability issues and the state of the art actions would

be the best safeguard.

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There is no easy answer - suppliers have to be aware.

6.7 References

A-Prompt Project. http://aprompt.snow.utoronto.ca/

ABASCAL, J., ARRUE, M., FAJARDO, I., GARAY, N. AND TOMAS, J., (2004). Use of

Guidelines to automatically verify web accessibility. Universal Access in the

Information Society. Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 71-79.

ARRUE, M., VIGO, M. & ABASCAL, J., (2006). Automatic Evaluation of Mobile

Web Accessibility. Accepted for publication in the 9th ERCIM Workshop "User

Interfaces for All". LNCS. Springer, 2006.

BEREIKDAR, A., KEITA, M., NOIRHOMME, M., RANDOLET, F., VANDERDONCKT, J.

AND MARIAGE, C., (2005). Flexible Reporting for Automated Usability and

Accessibility Evaluation of Web Sites. Proceedings of 10th IFIP TC 13 Int. Conf. on

Human-Computer Interaction, INTERACT 2005, M.-F. Costabile, F. Paternò (Eds.),

Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 3585, pp. 281-294. Springer-Verlag,

Berlin.

CHISHOLM, W., VANDERHEIDEN, G., & JACOBS, I. (Eds.), (1999, May 5). Web

Content Accessibility Guidelines 1.0. http://www.w3.org/TR/WAI-WEBCONTENT/.

ENGELEN, J., FLETCHER, R., GILL, J., KLUSELL, L., LINDSTRÖM, J-I, SILVER, J. &

SUTHERLAND, B. (n/d). A Vision of Financial Services: Access to Financial Services

for Visually Disabled People. RNIB Scientific Research Unit.

GILL, J. M., (1998). Access Prohibited? Information for Designers of Public Access

Terminals. RNIB Scientific Research Unit.

GILL, J. M., (2001). Keeping Step - Scientific and Technological Research for

Visually Impaired People. RNIB Scientific Research Unit.

GILL, J., (2004). Access-Ability: Making technology more useable by people with

disabilities. RNIB Scientific Research Unit.

INCLUDE – Inclusion of Disabled and Elderly in Telematics (1999). A Step

Forward – Design for All. Sweden.

KURNIAWAN, S. & ZAPHIRIS, P., (2005). Research-derived web design guidelines

for older people. In proceedings of International ACM Conference on Assistive

Technologies 2005, ASSETS, 129-135.

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6. The role of evaluation

of accessibility

LEPORINI, B., PATERNÒ, F. & SCORCIA, A., (2006). Flexible tool support for

accessibility evaluation. Interacting with Computers. Vol. 18 No. 5, Pp. 869-890.

MARINCU, C & MCMULLIN, B., (2004). A comparative assessment of Web

accessibility and technical standards conformance in four EU states. First

Monday. Vol. 9, No. 7. http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue9_7/marincu/.

RABIN, J. AND MCCATHIENEVILE. C. (Eds.), (2006, June 27). Mobile Web Best

Practices. (W3C Candidate Recommendation) http://www.w3.org/TR/mobile-bp/.

STANTON, N., SALMON, N P., WALKER, G., BABER, C., JENKINS, D., (2005).

Human Factors Methods; A practical guide for Engineering and Design, TJ

International Ltd.

Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act.

http://www.section508.gov/index.cfm?FuseAction=Content&ID=12#Web.

Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). http://www.w3.org/WAI/.

Web Accessibility Versatile Evaluator 3.0 (WAVE). http://www.wave.webaim.org/.

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7. What obstacles prevent practical broadband applications

from being produced and exploited?

Yiannis Laouris and Marios Michaelides

7.1 Executive summary

This chapter summarizes the results of two workshops, that were held in Ayia

Napa, Cyprus and in Seville, Spain. The purpose of the workshops was to develop

a shared understanding regarding the obstacles that prevent the exploitation of

broadband technologies and to build commitment within the COST 219ter

community to an action agenda for collaboratively addressing the problem. The

workshops were organized using the “Interactive Management” methodology.

7.2 Introduction to interactive management format

The methodology used was chosen carefully to serve the needs of the COST 219ter

Action. The authors have extensive experience in the method and have used it in

many other forums to facilitate organizational and social change (vide infra).

The specific objectives set for this workshop were:

1. To create a shared understanding regarding the obstacles that prevent the

exploitation of broadband technologies.

2. To build commitment within the COST 219ter community to an action

agenda for collaboratively addressing the ‘system of obstacles’, and

3. To serve as a model for other European networks working on analogous

problems, thus forging a ‘chain of interactions’ that will embrace the

variety of stakeholders to collaborate towards the development and the

implementation of an agenda to overcome the system of obstacles.

To achieve these objectives the Interactive Management (IM) methodology was

chosen [Banathy, 1996; Warfield & Cardenas, 1994]. This methodology has been

used extensively by Christakis and many of his associates to enlighten and

“structure” analogous situations [Christakis and Bausch, 2006, Broome, 1997,

Laouris, 2004; Hays & Michaelides, 2004]. IM is specifically designed to assist

inhomogeneous groups to deal with complex issues, in a reasonably limited

amount of time. It enables the integration of contributions from individuals with

diverse views, backgrounds and perspectives through a process that is structured,

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7. What obstacles prevent practical broadband applications from

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inclusive and collaborative [Alexander, 2002; Christakis, 1973; Christakis &

Brahms, 2003]. A group of participants who are knowledgeable of the situation are

engaged in collectively developing a common framework of thinking based on

consensus and shared understanding of the current state of affairs. IM promotes

focused communication among the participants in the design process and their

ownership of and commitment in the outcome. IM seeks to appropriately balance

the behavioural demands of group work with technical assistance that makes it

possible to deal with the complexity of issues [Christakis, 1996]. It is designed to

prevent groups from prematurely focusing on decisions before they have

adequately defined the situation. The typical application of IM integrates the five

synergistic components of group decision-making summarized in table 7.1. The

right column of the table highlights the specifics in the case of our application.

Components of a typical IM application

Specifics of our

application of IM

1

A group of knowledgeable participants who represent

26 experts from 15

the variety of perspectives that need to be brought to

countries (21 are national

bear in dealing with the situation.

representatives within

COST 219ter).

2

Trained facilitators who are able to guide the group

The authors.

through the decision-making process.

3

A computer-assisted consensus-building methodology to

Interpretive Structural

help the group generate structure and select ideas.

Modelling.

4

An appropriate computer program to increase efficiency

The Cogniscope™

and productivity of group work.

software.

5

A specially designed physical environment that includes

Hotel conference rooms in

visual display space for ideas and structures promoting

Ayia Napa, Cyprus and

transparency and communication among the

Seville, Spain.

participants.

Table 7. 1 The five synergistic components of the group decision-making process as

applied in a typical IM workshop (left column) and the specific implementation

arrangements relevant to the application of the methodology in the context of the

COST 219ter workshops (right column).

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7. What obstacles prevent practical broadband applications from

being produced and exploited?

Two different, but complimentary, scientific methods were exploited in the context

of two workshops, one in Ayia Napa, Cyprus (7 October, 2005) and one in Seville,

Spain (7-8 March, 2006): the Nominal Group Technique (NGT) and the Interpretive

Structural Modelling (ISM) technique. The NGT was chosen, because it allows

individual contributions to be captured and pooled effectively and is adequate for

situations in which uncertainty and disagreements may exist. Its application in our

case involved the following steps:

1. A triggering question was formulated one month before the first workshop

and was sent by email to all participants. The purpose was to stimulate the

participants’ creativity and encourage them to begin generating their ideas

before the actual meeting. It also served to reduce the time required to

explain the methodology at the onset of the workshop. The triggering

question was: “Considering the availability of powerful broadband

technologies and the development of relevant scenarios, what are the

obstacles that prevent us from producing practical applications?”

2. During the following weeks and until the day just before the workshop,

participants were allowed to forward their ideas in writing by email sent to

the authors.

3. All ideas were recorded by the authors, entered into the program (see

below) and a compilation mailed back to all participants before the actual

workshop.

4. The workshop took place in a spacious conference room equipped with

comfortable chairs, screen, computer, and beamer. The availability of space,

the surrounding walls (where messages can be posted) and the overall

structure and organization of the room is very important for the success of

an IM workshop.

5. At the beginning of the workshop all ideas already collected, printed on A4

pages (one per page), were posted on the surrounding walls. They were

also distributed in the form of a list to all participants. The author of each

idea was requested to provide a short explanation. No more than 1-2

minutes per author were allowed at this stage.

6. For the rest of the workshop, one of the facilitators was engaged in

facilitating the process of democratic idea generation, collection and

explanation and recorded them on flip-chart paper. The other facilitator

was responsible for recording the ideas with the help of the Cogniscope™

software, project them on the screen using a beamer for immediate

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plenary control, print them on A4 pages and post them on the walls

surrounding the group. Whenever needed, participants were allowed to

discuss the current idea for clarification of its meaning.

7. Participants were given five stickers each and were asked to choose (while

still seated) the five most important ideas. This process of voting served to

choose those ideas which received the highest votes for further processing.

Figure 7.1 Set-up of the working space. The facilitator has easy eye contact with all

participants. The co-facilitator (not visible; sitting opposite of the first) documents on the

computer all contributions and manages projections using the beamer. Contributions are

printed and posted on the surrounding walls. Access to the walls is easy and comfortable.

Some Internet stations are available for participants to perform quick look ups of an issue

and access information necessary for them to make educated decisions.

The Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM) and the Cogniscope™

The Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM) is a computer-assisted method that

helps the group identify the relationship among ideas and impose structure on the

complexity of the issue. The ISM software utilizes mathematical algorithms that

minimize the number of queries necessary for exploring relationships among a set

of ideas. ISM can be used to develop several types of structures such as influence,

priority and categorization. The five steps of ISM are:

1. Identification and clarification of a set of ideas (using NGT).

2. Identification and clarification of a ‘relational question’ (e.g. does A

support B?).

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3. Development of a structural map by using the relational question to

explore connections between pairs of ideas.

4. Display and discuss the map.

5. Amendment of the map by the group, if necessary.

For the purpose of this workshop we have used a license of the Cogniscope™

software kindly provided free of charge for usage in the context of the COST 219ter

workshops by Dr. Aleco Christakis from Leading Design International

(www.leadingdesign.org).

7.3 Results

The results presented in detail below stem from two workshops, one held in Ayia

Napa (Cyprus: 7 October, 2005) and one in Seville (Spain: 7-8 March, 2006). In the

Napa workshop 26 experts from 15 countries participated for 3.5 hours. In the

Seville workshop, which lasted for a total of 6 hours spread over two consecutive

days (7th and 8th of March, 2006), the number of participants increased to 32.

With the exception of 4 persons, all other participants were the same in both

workshops. During the first workshop, the NGT (see Methodology section) was

applied. Some (i.e., 5) of the participants had submitted their contributions to the

authors a few days before the Cyprus workshop. These were presented to all

participants at the beginning of the workshop and were used as examples in order

to accelerate the process and to reduce the need for lengthy explanations at

launch time of how the method actually works. After a 15 minute introduction to

the method and presentation of the first 12 contributions already submitted by

some of the participants it was time to move on to the phase of creative generation

of contributions. One facilitator served as the person communicating with the

participants, while the other served as the person recording their ideas and

entering them into the Cogniscope™ software. In total, the participants identified

64 obstacles. During the coffee break, a printout of each idea produced was posted

on the walls surrounding the seminar area. In the next step, one of the facilitators

projected one idea after the other on the screen, and pointing to each element, he

asked the person who proposed it to clarify to the group what did s/he mean by

that. After each item was clarified, the facilitator checked it of with a marker and

moved to the next item, until all contributions were clarified. The clarifications were

also recorded, entered in the Cogniscope™ software and a complete list of the

obstacles with their clarifications was produced and circulated to the participants.

The complete list of the factors is given in Table 7.2.

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#

Factor

1

Absence of common standards

2

Difficulty in prioritising EU work is clear when country assignments are in focus

3

Difficulty to find small and efficient EU projects for all the big ones

4

Absence of practical interest

5

There are conflicting interests

6

Lack of personal character in the service

7

Lack of data protection information

8

Weakness of available videoconference systems on the internet

9

The lack of services in different countries

10

Too high communication costs

11

Lack of standards on content specification for diverse users

12

The absence of good technology transfer

13

Low awareness of technological solutions to functional limitations

14

Poor connection between statements of user needs and specific design requirements

15

Public sector disability programmes are too focused on assistive technology

16

The absence of human touch

17

The high-tech innovative image (look)

18

Weakness in advertising and marketing products for elderly people

19

The fear of the customers from the 'big brother' syndrome

20

The problem of conservatism

21

Lack of standardised services across the country

22

High communication costs

23

Lack of standardised communication

24

Authorities favour young adult user groups

25

The absence of a control authority against misuse

26

Low awareness of different user groups

27

Absence of an institution for permanent function control and maintenance

28

Low awareness how to reach the state if high tech

29

The absence of knowledge about the user needs of people with disabilities in mainstream

industry

30

The lack of money for programmes that include the need of users with disabilities in

mainstream products

31

The weaknesses of legislation and standards make it very difficult to motivate the

mainstream industry

32

The difficulty of the 'handicap community' to agree on and to define what accessible

products and services really mean

33

The absence of technologies that help you feel secure and safe

34

The absence of knowledge to prevent loneliness

35

Lack of understanding privacy issues

36

Applications requirements are becoming very complex

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7. What obstacles prevent practical broadband applications from

being produced and exploited?

37

There is a lack of funding in application oriented programmes

38

Teams are not stable enough for continued sustained growth

39

Insufficient consideration of human factors in application

40

Difficulty for users to understand the concept behind the smart home technology

41

Lack of awareness about Ambient Intelligence

42

Difficulty to cope with privacy and security aspects

43

Difficulty to address diverse needs simultaneously

44

Difficulty to determine what is appreciated intervention

45

The lack of incentives for the industry

46

The absence of development tools to support the real life application of Design for All

47

There is a need for more effective standardisation

48

Lack of good market incentives or business models

49

Lack of skills of 'accessibility for all' principles within companies

50

Lack of understanding of the market potential

51

The absence of finances or subsidies

52

Absence of appropriate portals / easy to use services

53

Inability to integrate a range of technologies in a seamless user experience

54

The absence of commercial drivers

55

The difficulty of forecasting take-up and use

56

The lack of fully appropriate user data

57

The weakness of other supporting evidence

58

The absence of special needs awareness

59

The lack of low cost availability of broad-band

60

The weakness of broad thinking from the disability lobbies

61

The difficulty to obtain disability related marketing information

62

Difficulty to identify real user needs

63

Unawareness of accessibility for all principles within companies

64

Lack of ability to engage with mechanisms that will bring specialist products or services to

market

Table 7.2 List of all “obstacles” generated by the participants of the Cyprus (Ayia Napa,

7th October 2005) workshop in response to the triggering question: “Considering the

availability of powerful broadband technologies and the development of relevant

scenarios, what are the obstacles that prevent us from producing practical applications?”

Participants have generated a total of 64 factors.

Time was then devoted to an open discussion and negotiation among participants

to cluster the factors into different categories. At the end of this process 10

clusters were created. These are summarized in Tables 7.3 to 7.12.

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7. What obstacles prevent practical broadband applications from

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1

Absence of common standards

12

The absence of good technology transfer

18

Weakness in advertising and marketing products for elderly people

27

Absence of an institution for permanent function control and maintenance

30

The lack of money for programmes that include the need of users with disabilities in

mainstream products

31

The weaknesses of legislation and standards make it very difficult to motivate the

mainstream industry

37

There is a lack of funding in application oriented programmes

45

The lack of incentives for the industry

48

Lack of good market incentives or business models

50

Lack of understanding of the market potential

54

The absence of commercial drivers

64

Lack of ability to engage with mechanisms that will bring specialist products or services to

market

Table 7.3 Cluster 1 Lack of financial incentives to deliver (commercial).

The participants grouped 12 factors under this category.

15

Public sector disability programmes are too focused on assistive technology

22

High communication costs

30

The lack of money for programmes that include the need of users with disabilities in

mainstream products

Table 7.4 Cluster 2 Lack of financial incentives (public sector).

The participants grouped 3 factors under this category.

7

Lack of data protection information

25

The absence of a control authority against misuse

35

Lack of understanding privacy issues

42

Difficulty to cope with privacy and security aspects

Table 7.5 Cluster 3 Concerns over privacy / data protection. The participants

grouped 4 factors under this category.

13

Low awareness of technological solutions to functional limitations

16

The absence of human touch

17

The high-tech innovative image (look)

19

The fear of the customers from the 'big brother' syndrome

20

The problem of conservatism

28

Low awareness how to reach the state if high tech

40

Difficulty for users to understand the concept behind the smart home technology

41

Lack of awareness about Ambient Intelligence

Table 7.6 Cluster 4 Low user appreciation of technology. The participants

grouped 8 factors under this category.

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7. What obstacles prevent practical broadband applications from

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1

Absence of common standards

11

Lack of standards on content specification for diverse users

31

The weaknesses of legislation and standards make it very difficult to motivate the

mainstream industry

32

The difficulty of the 'handicap community' to agree on and to define what accessible

products and services really mean

47

There is a need for more effective standardisation

63

Unawareness of accessibility for all principles within companies

Table 7.7 Cluster 5 Lack of formal standards. The participants grouped

6 factors under this category.

49

Lack of skills of 'accessibility for all' principles within companies

55

The difficulty of forecasting take-up and use

57

The weakness of other supporting evidence

61

The difficulty to obtain disability related marketing information

Table 7.8 Cluster 6 Lack of interest or priority for technology transfer.

The participants grouped 4 factors under this category.

2

Difficulty in prioritising EU work is clear when country assignments are in focus

3

Difficulty to find small and efficient EU projects for all the big ones

38

Teams are not stable enough for continued sustained growth

46

The absence of development tools to support the real life application of Design for All

Table 7.9 Cluster 7 Lack of support for continuing R & D. The participants

grouped 4 factors under this category.

4

Absence of practical interest

5

There are conflicting interests

6

Lack of personal character in the service

14

Poor connection between statements of user needs and specific design requirements

26

Low awareness of different user groups

29

The absence of knowledge about the user needs of people with disabilities in mainstream

industry

32

The difficulty of the 'handicap community' to agree on and to define what accessible

products and services really mean

33

The absence of technologies that help you feel secure and safe

34

The absence of knowledge to prevent loneliness

36

Applications requirements are becoming very complex

39

Insufficient consideration of human factors in application

43

Difficulty to address diverse needs simultaneously

44

Difficulty to determine what is appreciated intervention

52

Absence of appropriate portals / easy to use services

53

Inability to integrate a range of technologies in a seamless user experience

56

The lack of fully appropriate user data

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58

The absence of special needs awareness

60

The weakness of broad thinking from the disability lobbies

62

Difficulty to identify real user needs

Table 7.10 Cluster 8 Lack of attention to users / user profiles. This was the largest

cluster. The participants grouped 19 factors under this category.

8

Weakness of available videoconference systems on the internet

9

The lack of services in different countries

21

Lack of standardised services across the country

23

Lack of standardised communication

24

Authorities favour young adult user groups

Table 7.11 Cluster 9 Lack of national infrastructure. The participants grouped

5 factors under this category.

10

Too high communication costs

51

The absence of finances or subsidies

59

The lack of low cost availability of broadband

Table 7.12 Cluster 10 User costs perceived at 'too high.' The participants grouped

3 factors under this category.

The third step of the process involved the selection of those obstacles, that were

thought to be the most important. Each participant received five coloured stickers

and was asked to look at the walls and decide which factors he or she thought

were the most significant and, subsequently, select those five items by placing the

stickers next to them. The facilitator counted the votes and compiled them to

produce the priority list shown in Table 7.13. Only those items (i.e. 24) which

received more than 4 votes were considered for further analysis.

#

(Votes) Factor

31

(11) The weaknesses of legislation and standards make it very difficult to motivate the

mainstream industry

29

(10) The absence of knowledge about the user needs of people with disabilities in

mainstream industry

30

(8) The lack of money for programmes that include the need of users with disabilities in

mainstream products

42

(8) Difficulty to cope with privacy and security aspects

62

(7) Difficulty to identify real user needs

13

(6) Low awareness of technological solutions to functional limitations

49

(6) Lack of skills of 'accessibility for all' principles within companies

58

(6) The absence of special needs awareness

63

(6) Unawareness of accessibility for all principles within companies

1

(5) Absence of common standards

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7. What obstacles prevent practical broadband applications from

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14

(5) Poor connection between statements of user needs and specific design requirements

32

(5) The difficulty of the 'handicap community' to agree on and to define what accessible

products and services really mean

60

(5) The weakness of broad thinking from the disability lobbies

10

(4) Too high communication costs

18

(4) Weakness in advertising and marketing products for elderly

19

(4) The fear of the customers from the 'big brother' syndrome

37

(4) There is a lack of funding in application oriented programmes

41

(4) Lack of awareness about Ambient Intelligence

45

(4) The lack of incentives for the industry

46

(4) The absence of development tools to support the real life application of Design for All

48

(4) Lack of good market incentives or business models

50

(4) Lack of understanding of the market potential

54

(4) The absence of commercial drivers

61

(4) The difficulty to obtain disability related marketing information

Table 7.13 Prioritisation of Factors. The numbers in the left column correspond to the

numbering performed for the coding of the proposed factors (i.e., same as in Table ). The

middle column contains the number of votes cast for each element. Elements that

received less than four votes were not used in subsequent phases. One element received

11 votes, one received 10 votes, two received 8 votes, one received 7, four received 6

votes, four received 5 votes and eleven elements received 4 votes each. A total of 24

elements were used to structure the influence map shown in figure 7.3, whereas the

remaining 41 elements were not considered further.

Figure 7.2 Participants engaged in the voting process.

Following the definition and clarification of all factors, participants are given five

stickers each to use as votes. After they decide how to vote, they are asked to go

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to the walls and place their five stickers on their chosen factors. The co-facilitator

counts them and enters the number of votes each factor has received on the

computer software (see table 7.13). The factors with the highest votes are used for

the next phase. In most cases only about half of the factors are used for the next

phase.

Using the ISM method (as explained above), participants were encouraged to

engage in a structured dialogue with aim to develop a “map of obstacles.” The

items were projected on the screen in pairs with the following Relational Question:

If obstacle X was successfully addressed, will that SIGNIFICANTLY support

addressing obstacle Y?

During each comparison, the participants were engaged in a focused dialogue

aiming to explore the particular relationship as it was projected on the screen. This

usually presents an opportunity for participants to refine the meanings, uncover

relationships and dependencies and generally to develop a much better

understanding of the situation. This discussion also serves as an educational

exercise, because it helps all participants achieve the same level of understanding

and knowledge about the particular field. The technique uses the simple

mathematical concept of ‘If A>B and B>C then we can safely assume A>C,’ to

minimize the number of combinations needed to examine the influence

interrelation between a number of statements in a reasonable amount of time. The

fact that we are not dealing with quantities, but with ideas makes it necessary to

go deep into the meanings of the statements thus supporting the process of

creating a common knowledge base.

After going through all the necessary pair comparisons, a schematic presentation

of the “obstacles map” was created automatically by the Cogniscope™ software

and projected on the wall. This inter-relationships diagram is given in figure 7.3.

This particular tree has seven levels. The items shown at the top of the chart are

those with the lowest influence. The ones with the greatest influence or the “deep

drivers,” as they are usually referred to, are gathered at the bottom of the tree. This

method of presenting the results makes the interpretation of the outcome of the

participants’ observations easy and visual. One should read the map as follows:

The deepest driver is Factor 32, i.e., the difficulty of the 'handicap' community

to agree on and to define what accessible products. This is the obstacle, that

must be addressed first. Its resolution will significantly help address all other

obstacles.

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7. What obstacles prevent practical broadband applications from

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Factor 18: Weakness in

Factor 41: Lack of awareness

Factor 49: Lack of skills of

advertising and marketing

about Ambient Intelligence.

‘accessibility for all’ principles

products for elderly people.

within companies.

Factor 10: Too high

Factor 42: Difficulty to

Factor 19: The fear of the

communication costs.

cope with privacy and

customers from the ‘big brother’

security aspects.

syndrome.

Factor 29: The absence of knowledge about the

user needs of people with disabilities in mainstream industry.

Cycle with 46, 54, 58.

Factor 46: The absence of development tools supporting

application of Design for All.

Factor 54: The absence of commercial drivers.

Factor 58: The absence of special needs awareness.

Factor 63: Unawar

Factor 63:

eness of

Unawar

Factor 61: The difficulty to obtain

‘accessibility for all’ principles

disability related marketing

within companies.

within companies

information.

Factor 13: Low awareness of

Factor 30: The lack of money for

Factor 62: Difficulty to

technological solutions to

programmes that include the

identify real user needs.

functional limitations

need of users with disabilities

in mainstream products.

Cycle with 45.

Factor 37: There is a lack

Factor 45: The lack of incentives

of funding in application

for the industry.

oriented programmes.

Factor 31: The weaknesses of legislation and standards

make it very difficult to motivate the mainstream industry.

Cycle with 1, 48.

Factor 1: Absence of common standards.

Factor 48: Lack of good mark et incentives or business models.

Factor 14: Poor connection

Factor 60: The weakness

Factor 50: Lack of understanding

between statements of

of broad thinking from the

of the market potential.

user needs and specific

disability lobbies.

design requirements.

Factor 32: The difficulty of the 'handicap community' to agree on

and to define what accessible products and services really mean.

Figure 7.3 Influence tree of obstacles. The way to “read” this map is by using the

direction of the arrow: Resolving obstacle A – lower level – significantly enhances the

possibility of addressing and resolving obstacle B – higher level. Items at the bottom of

the tree must therefore be given higher priority and are usually easier to resolve. The tree

was generated by the participants of COST 219ter during two workshops in 2006.

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7. What obstacles prevent practical broadband applications from

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7.4 Discussion of the results

The resulting tree of influences of the obstacles features 18 boxes or clusters

organized in seven layers. Three boxes remained unconnected. An additional 6

factors are cycled with other factors within the same box. In the following

paragraphs we discuss this tree in greater detail addressing the various features.

Interpreting clusters

First, the cases in which the factors are clustered together in the same box are

addressed. In figure 7.3 the term, “cycle with …”, is used to explain this

phenomenon.

Cycle on layer 3

Factor 31:

The weaknesses of legislation and standards make it very

difficult to motivate the mainstream industry

Factor 1:

Absence of common standards

Factor 48:

Lack of good market incentives or business models

These three factors exhibited similar behaviour when participants were requested

to relate them with other factors. Looking at these three factors in isolation, they

all seem to have a correlated meaning, i.e., the absence of standards, incentives,

business models and legislation is held responsible for the low motivation of the

mainstream industry to produce relevant applications.

Cycle on layer 4

Factor 30:

The lack of money for programmes that include the need of

users with disabilities in mainstream products

Factor 45:

The lack of incentives for the industry

These two factors cluster together and, at first glance, they seem to be very similar

with the ones of the previous cluster. However, they have clustered at one layer

higher than the previous one. One might ask “Why?” To be able to answer this

question it is useful to study the subtle differences in the wording of these factors

and, of course, to refer back to the discussions that took place during the

workshop among the participants. As stated earlier in this chapter, one of the main

tasks of this methodology is to enable participants reach a deeper understanding

of the problem situation and achieve a consensus as to what are the real obstacles

that prevent the efficient resolution of the problem. Moreover, the method is

supposed to help stake holders highlight such small differences and structure the

situation in ways that help them address the problems. In our case, studying the

two cycles more carefully, it becomes obvious that in the first cycle the issue is

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7. What obstacles prevent practical broadband applications from

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more about standards, about business models and about legislation that secures

the framework within which such developments should evolve. However, the

second cluster focuses more on the availability of material incentives, i.e., funds,

programmes, tenders etc. When one considers these differences more carefully, it

becomes a lot easier to understand why the collective wisdom of the group has

placed this cluster one layer higher than the other. This is because business models,

legislation and decision making is a necessary condition that needs to precede the

actual creation of funding programmes or the engagement of investors willing to

put their money in relevant products.

Cycle on layer 5

Factor 30:

The lack of money for programmes that include the need of

users with disabilities in mainstream products

Factor 45:

The lack of incentives for the industry

Cycle on layer 6

Factor 29:

The absence of knowledge about the user needs of people with

disabilities in mainstream industry

Factor 46:

The absence of development tools to support the real life

application of Design for All

Factor 54:

The absence of commercial drivers

Factor 58:

The absence of special needs awareness

Interpreting unconnected elements

Three elements remained unconnected in the final influence tree:

Factor 10:

Too high communication costs

Factor 41:

Lack of awareness about Ambient Intelligence

Factor 49:

Lack of skills of accessibility for all principles within companies

This means that the group of experts failed to identify any relationships, i.e., any

influences of these factors upon other factors and vice versa. The way to interpret

this type of data is by concluding that,

“high communication costs, lack of awareness about ambient intelligence and

the lack of skills of accessibility within companies do not play significant roles

and are not to be considered significant obstacles that prevent us from

producing practical applications.”

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7. What obstacles prevent practical broadband applications from

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Priorities highlighted

One factor invariably “sank” at the foot of the tree making it stand out as the most

significant. This is Factor 32: The difficulty of the 'handicap' community to agree

on and to define what accessible products and services really mean. This finding

is extremely important and it was also quite unexpected among the members of

the group. According to the IM methodology, Factor 32 must receive top priority in

any actions. Making progress in overcoming this obstacle will facilitate the

resolution of the three factors that lie at the next layer up (i.e., layer 6):

Factor 14:

Poor connection between statements of user needs and specific

design requirements

Factor 60:

The weakness of broad thinking from the disability lobbies

Factor 50:

Lack of understanding of the marketing potential

In other words, when the 'handicap' community agrees on and defines what

accessible products are, progress will be easier to achieve in the three following

arenas:

1. It will be possible to gain a better understanding of the relationships

between user needs and specific design requirements.

2. The disability lobbies will have achieved a broader thinking.

3. The marketing potential of such technologies will much better understood.

Interpreting elements at the top layers

The following elements have clustered at the top of the tree. Usually this means

that elements at this level are perceived by the participants as the most important.

Factor 10:

Too high communication costs

Factor 42:

Difficulty to cope with privacy and security aspects

Factor 19:

The fear of the customers from the 'big brother' syndrome

Cluster Factor 29 Cycle with 46, 54, 58

This is indeed the case here for two of the factors, 42 and 29, which were both in

the top 4 factors in terms of votes cast (see table 7.13).

What this method offers is very important because it helps stakeholders not only

understand the relative significance of each obstacle, but also to develop a

roadmap to effectively address these obstacles. Although elements at this layer are

indeed most important, they are usually too vague, too general and certainly too

difficult to resolve. Their resolution will be significantly facilitated once elements at

lower layers are addressed and resolved.

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Location of the most important factors

It is also interesting to analyse where the factors, that were identified by the

participants as being the most important, are located in the influence tree of

obstacles shown in figure 7.3. The instinctive expectation is often be to think that

they will be located at the foot of the tree (layer 7) and would therefore be the first

issues that need to be addressed. This is clearly not the case here: of the five

factors that received the most votes, one is in the top layer (factor 42), one is in

the second layer (factor 29) two are in the fourth layer (factors 30 and 62) and one

is in the fifth layer (factor 31). This means that other issues, not perceived by the

“collective wisdom” of the experts as the most important factors, have to be

addressed first in order to resolve what are perceived as the most important issues,

and herein lies the strength and true value of this methodology. It yields a

structured road map, that none of the individual experts could have foreseen, let

alone drawn up, showing the order in which the obstacles need of be tackled in

order to address the triggering question of why there are not more practical

broadband applications being produced and exploited for elderly people and

people with disabilities.

Future application

According to pioneer IM expert, Dr. Christakis two things are always required to

achieve systemic change: (1) intent and (2) procedure. The work described in this

chapter aspires to offer a well-established, democratic procedure to address the

problem. The method is well-established and pioneers as a structured dialogue

a p p r o a c h , which attempts to develop consensus based on full and free

communication between stakeholders regardless of rank or power. Th e

methodology completely separates content from process and takes advantage of

demosophia, the collective wisdom (demosophia is a Greek word) of the people.

It was an achievement by itself that such as diverse group of participants, from

almost every country in Europe, with such diverse backgrounds and expertise

managed to explore the problem space and come up with 64 well-defined

obstacles, generate 10 clusters, prioritize the 24 most important and reach a

consensus as to which obstacles need to be addressed first. Moreover, the

participants developed a road map that could guide their efforts over the next few

years to develop strategies and design activities to systematically address these

obstacles and make progress regarding their resolution. Because the methodology

has supported them to develop an influence map, they can save time, energy and

funds by addressing obstacles in the “right”’ order, i.e., address and resolve those

obstacles first whose resolution will make it easier to address the others. In

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summary, the methodology is very efficient in terms of providing consensus and

practical results in such a short amount of time.

The goal of workshops like the one described in this paper go beyond the

identification of the obstacles and the construction of an obstacle map, which

supports stakeholders understand underlying mechanisms and their inter-

dependencies and design appropriate solutions. The goal of the “root cause

mapping” approach is not limited to solving a complex problem by appropriately

addressing various obstacles, but moreover to prevent it from re-surfacing again.

However, in order to achieve these goals one needs to design follow-up workshops

in which stakeholders deal with the “design of alternatives.” Such workshops

undergo exactly the same process and result to the drafting of an “options map.”

If the group aspires to engage in practical action and the planning of activities to

address the issues that surface in the action map, it will be useful to invite

stakeholders for the next phase who hold relevant power. The action phase can

then incorporate management practices such as having the various stakeholders

discuss and accept responsibilities, agree on schedules for implementation of

various strategies and actions etc.

In every day life, it is quite often that we witness cases in which opportunities to

achieve change are lost or missed. What is unfortunate is that opportunities for

systemic changes are rarely lost, because those who oppose change are too

powerful. In most cases, it is the inability of those involved that is to blame. This

inability comprises of the inability to understand the problem situation and to

collectively design a solution for which consensus is needed.

Credits

The authors would like to thank Patrick Roe for his valuable comments and

contributions during the preparation of this chapter and Dr. Aleco Christakis for

sharing his proprietary software for use in these workshops.

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7.5 References

Agoras of the Global Village.,(2003). Home page of ISSS 2003. http://www.isss-

conference.org/[10 December 2003].

ALEXANDER G.C., (2002). Interactive management: an emancipatory

methodology. Systemic Practice and Action Research 15: 111–122.

BANATHY B. H., (1996). Designing Social Systems in a Changing World. Plenum:

New York.

BROOME, B. J., (1997). Designing a Collective Approach to Peace: Interactive

Design and Problem-Solving Workshops with Greek- Cypriot and Turkish-Cypriot

Communities in Cyprus. International Negotiation, 2(3), 381-407.

CHRISTAKIS, A. N., (1973). A new policy science paradigm. Futures 5(6):

543–558.

CHRISTAKIS, A. N., (1996). A people science: the CogniScope system approach.

Systems: Journal of Transdisciplinary Systems Sciences 1(1): 16–19. Christakis AN,

Brahms S. 2003. Boundary spanning dialogue for the 21st century agoras.

Systems Research and Behavioral Sciences 20: 371–382.

CHRISTAKIS A. N., and BAUSCH, K., (2006). How People Harness their Collective

Wisdom and Power. Information Age Publishing, Greenwich, CT.

www.harnessingcollectivewisdom.com.

HAYS, P. R., and MICHAELIDES, M., (2004). Constructing Agoras of the Global

Village: A Co Laboratory of Democracy on the Conscious Evolution of Humanity.

Systems Research and Behavioral Science 21, 539-553.

LAOURIS, Y., (2004). Information technology in the service of peace building; The

case of Cyprus. World Futures, 60, 67–79.

WARFIELD, J. N., CARDENAS A.R., (1994). A Handbook of Interactive

Management. Iowa State University Press: Ames.

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8.

From concept to reality

8. From concept to reality

John Gill, Gunela Astbrink and Patrick Roe

Developing a novel product or service, rather than a new version of an existing

product or service, is always a challenge. With the increasing number of people

with disabilities, many of whom will be over retirement age, it is wise to include

them as potential consumers. However, for companies with limited experience

working in this area, there are a number of pitfalls which could easily be avoided

with appropriate planning.

The points outlined below are mainly derived from the detailed analysis in the

previous chapters and may assist developers in meeting the needs of the growing

market of older people and people with disabilities.

8.1 New technologies

There are finite resources which can be allocated to research and development, so

it is important to optimise this allocation. A useful indicator is services which have

proven to be beneficial in one country even if they have not been adopted in

others.

• SMS-based emergency services are useful for deaf people.

Chapter 2.3.5

Other services proven to be useful:

• Broadband for deafblind users

• Distance education for people with mild aphasia

• Digital distribution of talking books

• Broadband for people with an intellectual impairment

• Distance education using sign language.

Chapter 2.3.1

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As well as developing novel services, more basic research will be essential if people

with disabilities are to fully benefit from next generation networks.

Research priorities:

• Improve robustness of speech recognition systems

• Accurate sign language recognition

• Conversion of pictures and graphics into a non-visual format for blind

users.

Chapter 2.2.2

There has been significant interest in developing location-based services to help

people with disabilities but none are in widespread use at the present time.

Location and navigation services:

• Satellite navigation systems have potential to help

disabled travellers

• Use appropriate combination of technologies depending on the

environment (e.g. GPS outdoors with RFID in a shopping mall)

• Unmet need for these services, but sufficiently detailed accurate digital

maps are not readily available.

• Maintain consistent user interface irrespective of the

technology employed.

Chapter 2.2.1

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Frequently it is the ability to connect a range of devices with adaptable user

interfaces which determines the potential usefulness to people with disabilities.

This is particularly important in the area of smart housing.

Smart housing:

• The availability of domestic broadband offers many new possibilities

• Short-range wireless systems significantly reduce the cost of installation,

but the lack of maturity of this technology is a hindrance

• Adaptable and adaptive user interfaces will make systems easier to use

by people with disabilities.

Chapter 3

In the longer term, ambient intelligence could have a major beneficial effect on the

lives of people with disabilities. However for this to happen the

telecommunications industry needs to radically rethink their approach to

developing services for customers with disabilities.

Ambient intelligence:

• The potential of ambient intelligence to help people with disabilities is

considerable

• User centred design will be essential to ensure that real needs

are addressed

• Guidelines are needed to cover ethical and privacy aspects.

Chapter 4

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8.2 The development process

The development of new products and services has often been led by designers

thinking of what could be provided rather than by demand from their customers.

This is not a major problem when the designers have a good understanding of the

needs and aspirations of the user group, but this is rarely the case when the users

are people with disabilities.

• It is vital to commit to continuous and structured dialogue and

consultations between industry and all users - including people with

disabilities and older people.

Chapter 6

8.2.1 Assess user requirements

Technology industries have developed a number of tools to assist in assessing user

requirements but there have been problems in using these tools with people with

disabilities. One issue is the range of impairments that can affect individuals

differently. Two people who appear to have the same combination of impairments

can have very different requirements for a telecommunications service.

Too often designers have worked with simplistic concepts of disability (for

example, the fallacy that all visually impaired people are totally blind, read Braille

and have bionic hearing), and then tested the prototypes on a very small number

of unrepresentative users. Not surprisingly the resultant products frequently fail to

sell in significant quantities.

Most people with disabilities are reluctant to use a product if it looks as if it had

been designed for “the disabled”. For domestic use the aesthetic design of the

product must be appropriate; in the case of older users, this may mean a

conventional look. The size of the product is also important since space in the living

room may be limited, so devices with a small footprint are often preferred.

There is no simple solution to assessing requirements for people with disabilities.

However some steps may alleviate the situation:

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(a) Provide disability training to the product designers

(b) Use existing guidelines

(c) Test with an appropriate cross-section of potential users.

Once a realistic estimate has been derived for the likely take up of a new product

or service, it will be necessary to allocate resources to undertake the research and

development. Since there will be a finite limit on these resources, it will be

necessary to prioritise. Some services might be of enormous benefit to a small

group (eg those who are both deaf and blind) whereas others may be of modest

benefit to a very large number of users.

• Mobile telephony can help people with dementia.

Chapter 2.3.4

8.2.2 Quantify potential demand

The prevalence of various disabilities can be based on clinical measures (e.g. so

many dBs of hearing loss at a particular frequency) which can be useful for the

medical profession. The advantages of these measures are that they are

repeatable, but the disadvantage is that they give little indication of the user’s

needs particularly for those with multiple disabilities.

Therefore there are a number of functional definitions in use. These define a

particular task and then measure the number of people who cannot do the task or

have great difficulty doing it without the use of assistive devices. These measures

give a better indication of the numbers but only apply for the task specified. For

instance about 0.1% of the population in Europe has to rely on non-auditory

methods of communication (eg text telephony) but about 6% have problems using

a conventional telephone; this number might rise to 10% if the telephone was in

a noisy environment such as on a bus.

The prevalence of various disabilities, however measured, has little relation to the

take up of novel telecommunication products and services. This is for a number of

reasons including the high average age, the reluctance to use technological

systems which may not work 100% of the time, a lack of awareness of what is

available, and a caution in investing money in systems which may be obsolete

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within a couple of years. Reliable, easy-to-use products that are marketed in

innovative ways will have more success.

Often a product or service is developed, and user groups are asked to participate

in usability testing once the product or service is ready to go to market. This is often

too late as users may provide feedback stating that significant changes should be

made; these changes represent time and money for industry. If the changes are not

made, then the product or service may not meet the users' needs and consequently

fail in the marketplace.

• Remote sign language interpretation using 3G video telephony has had

high take up when priced affordably.

Chapter 2.3.2

It is therefore important to involve user representatives early in the product design

c y c l e. This is referred to as user-centred design. Some large international

corporations employ this technique to assist development teams produce more

appropriate products. It focuses on the active involvement of the user in the design

process, trying to obtain a clear understanding of the exact task requirements,

involving an iterative design and evaluation process, and utilising a multi-

disciplinary approach. The key focus of user-centred design is that users play a

critical role in the design of easy-to-use products throughout the entire

development process. Interaction throughout the design process is necessary

between users and developers in order to understand and define the context of

use, the tasks, and how users are likely to work with the future product or system.

8.2.3 Training of user repreentatives

An important part of any development process, be it research or standards-writing,

is the training of consumer representatives. While some organisations may claim to

represent specific user groups, it is necessary to include a broad spectrum of user

groups. There are several components of user testing. The most traditional is

usability testing of a product or service prototype. This may include a large number

of users in a variety of situations. While laboratory testing with users is the

favoured method, being economical and easily managed, it may not give the most

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accurate results. Field testing using a combination of observation and interviews

will provide a more well-rounded result as it reflects the real life of the end-user.

However, it may be more costly. There needs to be a balance between the various

approaches.

Evaluation:

• Accessibility, like quality, needs to be considered at all stages in the

design process

• Testing of accessibility features, with an appropriate cross-section of

potential users, should be the norm in the telecommunications industry.

Chapter 6

There should also be a reference group of skilled user representatives that interacts

with the design or production team on a regular basis. This group will offer a more

wide-ranging and strategic view and may even input into the development process

itself.

To achieve a body of skilled user representatives, there needs to be training and

mentoring programmes. These ensure that user representatives may learn more

about technologies as well as the legislative and regulatory framework. In

addition, skills can be taught such as meeting procedure, public speaking and the

principles of representing group interests rather than their own accessibility

interests. Some of this may seem common sense to industry professionals.

However, people with disabilities need to learn to combine their personal

experience of disability with professional skills in order for the best results to be

achieved.

There have been user representative training programmes developed under

European Commission projects. However, these need to be ongoing and further

developed in more European countries.

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8.2.4 Service providers

The organisation offering telecommunications services may be different from the

manufacturer of the terminal or the network operator. This means that there needs

to be close collaboration between all parties when developing new services. The

development of a business case may be complex if various parts of the supply chain

are in different countries since different countries may apply different levels of

subsidy to various services for people with disabilities.

8.2.5 Appropriate marketing

With a new feature for an existing service, consumers can often quickly appreciate

the potential benefits. However if the service is totally new, it is often only by

trailling a system that it is possible to estimate whether the service is likely to be

commercially viable. Even then developers can seriously under or over estimate the

likely take up; SMS is just one example.

Marketing to people with a disability can present particular challenges since the

normal marketing techniques may be inappropriate; for instance printed

advertisements may have little impact on blind customers. There are additional

problems in explaining to people with intellectual impairments the potential

benefits of a new service; this may go some way to explaining the low take up of

new telecommunication services by this group of customers.

Some unmodified services are popular with people with disabilities if they are

affordable; for instance SMS is heavily used by many deaf people. Other services

use standard terminals in conjunction with a service centre. For people with an

intellectual impairment, a mobile phone can transmit location information and a

picture of the immediate environment to a remote service centre where a human

operator can guide the user to their required destination. Such a service would be

invaluable to an intellectually impaired or blind person travelling alone on public

transport when there is a disruption to their routine.

Marketing which is directed at a particular section of the disability community with

a product “for the disabled” can be less effective than marketing the same product

to the general public and mentioning that it can also be of benefit to people with

impairments. Many consumers, particularly those who are ageing, do not like to

consider themselves ‘disabled’ but do admit that their abilities are not as good as

they used to be.

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8.2.6 Training and support

Customers with disabilities will need support which may be additional to that

provided to non-disabled customers. For instance a blind user may not be able to

read the instructions for setting up and using the equipment; in this case it may be

necessary to provide the instruction books in alternative formats on demand (e.g.

Braille, large print and audio) or at least in electronic format that can easily be

converted into formats offering speech output. For a deaf person, customer

support centres might need to able to respond to text calls. For someone with an

intellectual impairment, the instruction book might need to be written in a

language which is easy to understand and has clear pictures or diagrams.

It is vital to ensure accessibility has been considered from the point of customer

interaction within the sales chain and onwards through the experience.

A particular problem is when the system has a malfunction, since it may not be

easy for the user with a disability to ascertain where the fault is located or to run

diagnostics even with help over the telephone. Therefore consideration needs to be

given to providing appropriate support services. However, identifying the source of

a fault is difficult for the majority of end-users and therefore an intuitive system

backed up with well-trained staff in customer service are essential for any

customer-oriented company.

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From concept to reality

8.3 Legislation and regulation as drivers

When the market does not deliver the required result, national regulators have

stepped in with mandatory requirements. In addition some countries have

discrimination legislation such as the Disability Discrimination Act in the UK; such

legislation can also be found in countries such as USA and Australia. However the

trend is towards less regulation in the telecommunications area, so the role of

legislation at national or European level may become more significant. Legislation

such as European Directives tied to particular standards may become more

significant in future. This is particularly the case with the Public Procurement

Directive.

In the USA, government procurement requirements have been used as a way of

influencing manufacturers to provide information and communication technology

systems which incorporate accessibility features. Since there is no easy way to

measure accessibility, the approach has been to take each technology component

and specify accessibility requirements. Although this approach does improve

accessibility and is measurable, it has the disadvantage that it does not look at the

ease of use of the whole system by people with disabilities.

A mechanism needs to be devised that allows manufacturing and service provider

companies to make decisions in developing products safe in the knowledge that

legislative duties have been met.

The European Commission has indicated through a Directive that it intends to use

government procurement to require accessible systems. Traditionally the European

approach has been to use formal standards (eg from CEN, CENELEC and ETSI), and

then have Directives which make particular standards mandatory. This is likely to

be the case with public procurement incorporating accessibility requirements. The

European Commission will call upon the standards bodies to develop accessibility

guidelines to be referred to from the Directive.

In addition, the U.S. accessibility guidelines for public procurement purposes are

being reviewed in 2007 and it is anticipated that there will be collaboration

between the European and U.S. guidelines developers. This will provide a clearer

path for product developers in designing equipment that meets accessibility

requirements and thus for industry to more successfully increase their sales

through supply to government agencies as well as to the wider market.

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Regulation:

• While there is a trend towards less regulation in the telecommunications

sector, the question of how to protect the interests of disenfranchised people

in a free market will become a key issue and consideration needs to be given

to the provision of services for people with disabilities

• The scope of the Universal Service Directive could have significant

implications

• Government procurement can require the provision of accessible

equipment, but what is accessible will need to be defined in standards

• Inclusion of Design for All principles in standards should become as

commonplace as reference to quality standards.

Chapter 5

8.4 Conclusions

This outline of some of the measures taken to successfully bring many of the

concepts detailed in previous chapters to reality should indicate that catering, for

many companies, to a new and strongly emerging market of older people and

people with disabilities can bring rewards. These rewards may result in several

positive benefits.

Firstly, in a saturated market such as mobile phone terminals, the development of

products and services that are more user-friendly as well as providing suitable

features for older people and people with disabilities can offer companies who are

prepared to be flexible and adapt their practices, additional market share and very

likely increased income. This may also apply to highly competitive emerging

technologies such as VoIP and next generation networks.

Secondly, the provision of more accessible and usable products and services to

older people and people with disabilities means that industry participates as good

corporate citizens and contributes to their triple bottom line. This will naturally

improve their corporate image. The dividend in getting it right first time though are

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From concept to reality

very much greater - user loyalty to the brand is likely to be substantially greater if

a product appears to be accessible from the outset without a struggle.

Finally, people with disabilities have the opportunity of participating more strongly

in the community, increasing their employment prospects and contributing to

society and their economy.

If the future is going to be truly inclusive, organisations need a coherent strategy

for moving from concept to reality in the development of new services.

Challenges:

• The disability community, together with key stakeholder groups, needs to

agree on and define what makes a product accessible

• Development of methodology for specifying design requirements from a

statement of user needs

• Need for increased understanding among disability organisations of the

potential offered by next generation networks

• The use of appropriate marketing strategies by telecommunication

companies.

Chapter 7

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Appendix I

Scenarios for people who are not able to see

1. Maria

The environment is assumed to be totally unknown to Maria.

Being a blind person, Maria has a foldable tactile presentation system. Even if tactile presentations

are in principle available for all users, she prefers to carry her own device so as to avoid potential

problems during her trip.

Original scenario

After a tiring long haul flight Maria passes through the arrivals hall of an airport in a Far Eastern

country. She is travelling light, hand baggage only. When she comes to this particular country she

knows that she can travel much lighter than a decade ago, when she had to carry a collection of

different so-called personal computing devices (laptop PC, mobile phone, electronic organisers and

sometimes beamers and printers). Her computing system for this trip is reduced to one highly

personalised communications device, her ‘P–Com’ that she wears on her wrist.

AmI opportunities

Maria’s P-com can be equipped with specialised interfaces (e.g., a foldable tactile interface). When

necessary, the P-com can communicate with sophisticated peripherals (e.g., a tactile 3-D system)

available in the environment.

Maria calls the P-Com her ‘key of keys’ because it almost invisibly unlocks the doors she meets on

her trip. It allows her to move around in an ambience that is shaped according to her needs and

preferences. In the past travelling involved many different and complicated transactions with all

sorts of different service vendors, often with gaps and incompatibilities between the different

services. In the past few years, a series of multi-service vendors (MSVs) have emerged offering

complete packages of services linked to the P-Com that tailor the user’s environment according to

their preferences. User preferences are set up during an ‘initiation period’ during which personal

agents (personal-servants or perservs) are instructed or learn how to obey their master’s wishes.

These agents are in continual negotiation with those of participating service providers (such as

shops, rental companies, hotels and so on).

AmI opportunities

This new situation, of interest for all people, can be particularly interesting for blind people, who

may presently have problems in accessing complex information services.

A particular feature of this trip is that the country that Maria is visiting has since the previous year

embarked on an ambitious ambient intelligence infrastructure programme. Thus her visa for the trip

was self-arranged and she is able to stroll through immigration without stopping because her P-

Com is dealing with the ID checks as she walks.

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Problems

Navigating the environment.

Possible solutions

The P-Com in communication with AmI guides Maria through the airport (e.g., by voice, or using

haptic cues).

This requires:

• The knowledge of her position in the airport (granted by AmI);

• The possibility of controlling the presence of unpredictable obstacles (people, baggage, etc.).

The second prerequisite can be addressed through two approaches:

• The first is based on the features of the AmI itself, which could contain a control system able to

monitor tagged objects in real time and communicate with the P-com of passengers;

• The second is based on a personal system (artificial virtual guide dog), that is a set of sensors

(e.g., a worn T.V. camera, or some type of ultrasound or laser) able to spot possible obstacles. RFID

on objects can be used for signalling the presence of obstacles to the virtual guide dog.

AmI opportunities

Navigation in the environment is considered as a problem for a blind person. Instead of creating

new obstacles, AmI has the potentiality of offering a solution to the mobility of blind people in all

environments where its facilities are deployed.

Tracking people and offering context related information is supposed to be one of the standard

features of AmI.

A rented car has been reserved for her and is waiting in an earmarked bay. The car opens as she

approaches. It starts at the press of a button: she doesn’t need a key. She still has to drive the car

but she is supported in her journey downtown to the conference centre-hotel by the traffic guidance

system that had been launched by the city government as part of the ‘AmI-Nation’ initiative two

years earlier.

Problems

Maria cannot drive.

Possible solutions

She uses a taxi.

a) Her P-Com can guide her to the taxi rank or

b) The taxi driver was informed from Maria’s arrival beforehand and he picks her up at the door of

the arrival lounge.

The taxi driver’s and Maria’s P-Coms can communicate so that the driver can locate Maria.

AmI opportunities

See previous point.

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Downtown traffic has been a legendary nightmare in this city for many years, and draconian steps

were taken to limit access to the city. But Maria has priority access rights into the central cordon

because she has a reservation in the car park of the hotel. Central access however comes at a

premium price, in Maria’s case it is embedded in a deal negotiated between her personal agent and

the transaction agents of the car-rental and hotel chains. Her firm operates centralised billing for

these expenses and uses its purchasing power to gain access at attractive rates. Such preferential

treatment for affluent foreigners was highly contentious at the time of the introduction of the route

pricing system and the government was forced to hypothecate funds from the tolling system to the

public transport infrastructure in return.

In the car Maria’s teenage daughter comes through on the audio system. Amanda has detected

from ‘En Casa’ system at home that her mother is in a place that supports direct voice contact.

However, even with all the route guidance support Maria wants to concentrate on her driving and

says that she will call back from the hotel.

AmI opportunities

Maria has the advantage of being able to speak immediately with her daughter.

Maria is directed to a parking slot in the underground garage of the newly constructed building of

the Smar-tel Chain. She is met in the garage by the porter – the first contact with a real human in

our story so far! He helps her with her luggage to her room.

Her room adopts her ‘personality’ as she enters. The room temperature, default lighting and a range

of video and music choices are displayed on the video wall.

Problems

The traditional remote control is not accessible.

Possible solutions

Maria can use the P-Com. Alternatively, AmI can describe to her the layout and the functionalities

of the remote control.

AmI opportunities

AmI knows itself and its components. If necessary, it is able to describe the layout and the

functionalities of the remote control and of the entire room.

She needs to make some changes to her presentation – a sales pitch that will be used as the basis

for a negotiation later in the day.

Using voice commands she adjusts the light levels and commands a bath.

Problems

Maria cannot do two acoustic activities simultaneously.

Possible solutions

The actions must be sequenced, or an alternative interfaces (Braille) addressing a different modality

may be used.

AmI opportunities

AmI is able to organize sequentially the flow of information and the performance of the necessary

tasks, allocating the necessary time.

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Then she calls up her daughter on the video wall, while talking she uses a traditional remote control

system to browse through a set of webcast local news bulletins from back home that her daughter

tells her about. They watch them together.

Problems

She can not watch the news, she can listen to the news.

Possible solutions

Listening to the news and communicating with her daughter must be sequenced in some way.

AmI opportunities

The possibility of watching the news together and being able to comment them adds a very

important social dimension to the interaction.

Later on she ‘localises’ her presentation with the help of an agent that is specialised in advising on

local preferences (colour schemes, the use of language). She stores the presentation on the secure

server at headquarters back in Europe. In the hotel’s seminar room where the sales pitch is to take

place, she will be able to call down an encrypted version of the presentation and give it a post

presentation decrypt life of 1.5 minutes.

Problems

Maria cannot see her presentation (neither the colour scheme).

Possible solutions

The agent that advises on preferred colour schemes should be reliable enough to detect and correct

eventual contrast and related problems. Alternatively, a connection with the office is established

through the broadband network, in order to allow a visual inspection of the results.

If Maria had not been born blind and knew colours, she can be informed vocally of the colour

scheme.

AmI opportunities

The additional opportunities offered by AmI are related to the availability of broadband

communication facilities. Maria can be helped by colleagues, who can work cooperatively across

the network. In many situations human support can be more effective and acceptable than

technological support.

The hotel offers neutral third part hosting of presentations but Maria wants to be sure for her own

peace of mind that some of the sensitive material in the presentation will not sit around on a 3rd

party server for prying eyes to see. To do this work, Maria is using hardware provided by the hotel,

but with security clearance and access to her personal home workspace guaranteed by her P-Com.

AmI opportunities

Security is built in the system.

She goes downstairs to make her presentation…this for her is a high stress event. Not only is she

performing alone for the first time, the clients concerned are well known to be tough players. Still,

she doesn’t actually have to close the deal this time. As she enters the meeting she raises

communications access thresholds to block out anything but red-level ‘emergency’ messages.

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Problems

Maria needs to know who is in the room.

Maria needs to know when she can start her presentation.

Maria needs to control the pace of the presentation.

Possible solutions

The P-Coms communicate and exchange the information on who is attending the meeting.

She gets a multi-modal confirmation (voice through earphone plus vibrator) that the presentation

is ready for display.

There is a tactile display in the room or she can use the personal tactile display. The tactile display

has a copy of the presentation plus additional control functions (active functions), pointing facilities

and slide content details.

AmI opportunities

Probably a normal handshake could be as efficient and more pleasant.

In AmI the wide availability of tactile displays is part of the built in virtual reality interfaces.

The meeting is rough, but she feels it was a success. Coming out of the meeting she lowers the

communication barriers again and picks up a number of amber level communications including one

from her cardio-monitor warning her to take some rest now.

The day has been long and stressing. She needs to chill out with a little meditation and medication.

For Maria the meditation is a concert on the video wall and the medication….a large gin and tonic

from her room’s minibar.

2. Dimitrios

Original scenario

It is four o’clock in the afternoon. Dimitrios, a 32 year-old person working in a food - multinational,

is taking a coffee at his office’s cafeteria, together with his boss and some colleagues. He doesn’t

want to be excessively bothered during this pause. Nevertheless, all the time he is receiving and

dealing with incoming calls and mails.

He is proud of ‘being in communication with mankind’: as are many of his friends and some

colleagues. Dimitrios is wearing, embedded in his clothes, a ‘gateway’ or digital avatar of himself,

familiarly known as ‘Digital Me’ or ‘D-Me’. A D-Me is both a learning device, learning about

Dimitrios from his interactions with his environment, and an acting device offering communication,

processing and decision-making functionality. Dimitrios has partly ‘programmed’ the D-Me himself,

at a very initial stage: it was, he says, a great personal experience to formalise somehow his identity

and the way he envisaged his relations. At the time, he thought he would ‘upgrade’ this initial data

periodically. But he didn’t. He feels quite confident with his D-Me and relies upon its ‘intelligent

PDA-like’ reactions.

AmI opportunities

Even if blind people do not normally have problems in interpersonal communication help in

processing of the complex flow of communications and decision making can be very interesting.

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Dimitrios has a ‘3P/3CAG D-Me’-it allows him to specify three privacy levels (3P) for personal data

matched to three separate ‘closed access group’ (3CAG) memberships.

AmI opportunities

Privacy is a built in facility of AmI.

At 4:10 p.m. following other calls of secondary importance - answered formally in a smoothly

multilingual reproduction of Dimitrios’ voice and typical accent, a call from his wife is further

analysed by his D-Me. The D-Me confronts available data registered from Dimitrios’ environment

(voices, themes, location, other ‘patched’ objects) to match the situation with this private call

(Dimitrios’ wife’s voice, theme, emotional level). In a first attempt, Dimitrios’ ‘avatar-like’ voice runs

a brief conversation with Dimitrios’ wife, with the intention of negotiating a delay while explaining

his current situation.

Simultaneously, Dimitrios’ D-Me has caught a message from an older person’s D-Me, located in the

nearby metro station. This senior has left his home without his medicine and would feel at ease

knowing where and how to access similar drugs in an easy way. He has addressed his query in

natural speech to his D-Me. Dimitrios happens to suffer from similar health problems and uses the

same drugs. Dimitrios’ D-Me processes the data available to offer information to the senior. It

‘decides’ neither to reveal Dimitrios’ identity (privacy level), nor to offer Dimitrios’ direct help (lack

of availability), but to list the closest drug shops, alternative drugs and contacts to a self-help group

and medical contacts nearby in case of emergency. This information is shared with the senior’s D-

Me, rather than with the senior himself, to avoid useless information overload.

The D-Me is equipped with voice, pattern and patch recognition capacity. It has to identify places

and people, but also to register enough data to record the relevant events of Dimitrios’ life to

process it in its DMe profile and offer it to other DMe’s.

AmI opportunities

Functions of pattern and patch recognition can have an important impact on access to information

by blind people.

Meanwhile his wife’s call is now interpreted by his D-Me as sufficiently pressing to mobilise

Dimitrios. It ‘rings’ him using a pre-arranged call tone. Dimitrios takes up the call with one of the

available ‘Displayphones’ in the cafeteria. Since the diffusion of D-Me, fewer people run around

with mobile terminals. Public and private spaces have display terminals and your D-Me can point

at the closest….functioning one!

Problems

Possible problems in localising the displayphone.

Possible solutions

The P-com can communicate with the displayphone and, in cooperation with AmI, helps navigation

to it.

Alternatively Dimitrios can wear a special P-com that allows him to communicate directly with his

wife.

AmI opportunities

The selection of different telecommunication facilities is available.

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Dimitrios’ wife hates his D-Me. She suspects him living parallel lives and whatever the practical

aspects, she definitely would prefer having himright away on the phone. It has been a source of

conflict from the start.

The ‘emergency’ is about their child’s homework. While doing his homework their 9 year-old son is

meant to offer some insights on everyday life in Egypt. In a brief 3-way telephone conference,

Dimitrios offers to pass over the query to the D-Me to search for an available direct contact with a

child in Egypt. Ten minutes later, his son is videoconferencing at home with a girl of his own age,

and recording this real-time translated conversation as part of his homework. All communicating

facilities have been managed by Dimitrios’ D-Me, even while it is still registering new data and

managing other queries. The Egyptian correspondent is the daughter of a local businessman, well

off and quite keen on technologies. Some luck (and income…) had to play a part in what might

become a long lasting new relationship.

AmI opportunities

For a blind person, normally communicating by voice an automatic translated conversation could

be particularly useful.

Managing a service while choosing the best telecommunication means for the videoconference

forms part of the role of the D-Me.

3. Carmen

Original scenario

The driver is part of a carpooling scheme of the transport management systems in the urban area

where Carmen lives. Advanced payment and transactions systems are in place, which are able to

calculate the amount of money that goes to the driver and the amount that goes to the transport

operators.

It is a normal weekday morning. Carmen wakes and plans her travel for the day. She wants to leave

for work in half an hour and asks AmI, by means of a voice command, to find a vehicle to share

with somebody on her route to work. AmI starts searching the trip database and, after checking the

willingness of the driver, finds someone that will pass by in 40 minutes. The in-vehicle biosensor has

recognised that this driver is a non-smoker – one of Carmen requirements for trip sharing. From

that moment on, Carmen and her driver are in permanent contact if wanted (e.g. to allow the driver

to alert Carmen if he/she will be late). Both wear their personal area networks (PAN) allowing

seamless and intuitive contacts.

Problems

Need of special arrangements for travelling and meeting.

Possible solutions

For the trip sharing, the Carmen’s Aml informs the driver of her profile’s data related to her

disability, the destination and time details of the desire route, the way that he or she will recognise

her at a meeting point, and the parameters for establishing (PAN) connection from the moment that

they will agree.

The driver is notified of Carmen’s disability as this may have certain implications, for example in

arranging the meeting point.

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AmI opportunities

AmI knows the abilities/disabilities of Carmen and, if authorised by her, can use this information for

helping in arranging her travelling to work.

Objects can be tracked through radio-frequency identification tags. These e-tags are very small,

maximum of the size of a grain of rice and can be embedded in everyday objects. Everyone carrying

a device equipped with a reader could access additional information and services relating to the

tagged item.

AmI opportunities

Tags can be very useful for blind people. They can offer information to the blind persons or can be

interrogated by them.

While taking her breakfast coffee Carmen lists her shopping since she will have guests for dinner

tonight. She would like also to cook a cake and the e-fridge flashes the recipe. It highlights the

ingredients that are missing: milk and eggs. She completes the shopping on the e-fridge screen and

asks for it to be delivered to the closest distribution point in her neighbourhood. This can be a shop,

the postal office or a franchised nodal point for the neighbourhood where Carmen lives. All goods

are smart tagged, so that Carmen can check the progress of her virtual shopping expedition, from

any enabled device at home, the office or from a kiosk in the street. All goods are smart tagged, so

that Carmen can check the progress of her virtual shopping expedition, from any enabled device at

home, the office or from a kiosk in the street. She can be informed during the day on her shopping,

agree with what has been found, ask for alternatives, where they are and when they will be

delivered.

Problems

Need of alternative communication with the environment.

Possible solutions

Carmen’s P-com in communication with her e-fridge voices the recipe.

The system concludes by listing the missing ingredients.

Carmen completes the shopping list through brief voice commands.

When Carmen is connected to the shop, all the information stored in tags is translated in a properly

encoded format for her to receive. Carmen may choose to hear or read (e.g., in Braille) brief

descriptions of the goods, or to have a full presentation of a particular product or store shelf.

Presentations may contain information for the product characteristics (size, colour, and weight), the

packing, the price, potential offers or alternative selections and other information that will help her

to make her choice. Carmen’s P-workstation enables her to explore and manipulate 3D models and

artefacts by means of tactile interaction.

AmI opportunities

The wide availability of speech interfaces is very important for blind people.

Tags in connection with telecommunication networks can help in exploring the local and remote

environment.

Tactile displays are supposed to be widely available.

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In this scenario the environmental management system is not only connected to sensors that

control vehicle engines or the police, which in case of accidents can transfer information to the

traffic control network to re-route traffic. The system is also able to alert individuals with allergies

to certain types of pollutants when a dangerous threshold is reached. Individuals will be informed

of the unhealthy atmosphere and can decide whether to go out or stay home.

Forty minutes later Carmen goes downstairs onto the street, as her driver arrives. When Carmen

gets into the car, the VAN system (Vehicle Area Network) registers her and by doing that she

sanctions the payment systems to start counting.

Problems

Difficulties in reaching the meeting point (navigation).

Possible solutions

A sound notification from Aml informs Carmen that she should leave her flat, as her driver is

arriving. While moving towards the meeting point, her “e-guide dog” (see Maria scenario),

plugged-in to the P-com, informs her about any non-familiar physical obstacles that are on her way

as her neighbours are moving out and the corridor is full of obstacles such as furniture and boxes.

Carmen’s “e-dog” voices proper directional instructions and guides her safely to the meeting point

arranged with the driver.

AmI opportunities

AmI offers new and efficient support for navigating the environment, relying on information

available in AmI and in personal support systems (e-guide dog).

A micro-payment system will automatically transfer the amount into the e-purse of the driver when

she gets out of the car.

In the car, the dynamic route guidance system warned the driver of long traffic jams up ahead due

to an accident. The system dynamically calculates alternatives together with trip times. One

suggestion is to leave the car at a nearby ‘park and ride’ metro stop. Carmen and her driver park

the car and continue the journey by metro. On leaving the car Carmen’s payment is deducted

according to duration and distance.

Problems

Possible navigation problems.

Possible solutions

The UAN (Underground Network Area) registers Carmen as a blind client and suggests routes and

paths that are not too busy at that point, so she could manage to be at work on time. Her “e-guide

dog” is waiting for her to decide about the way they will follow. A sound alert from the e-dog

indicates that time is passing, so she has to quickly decide the direction to take.

AmI opportunities

AmI can support the mobility of Carmen in the city and give her context relevant information. The

“e-guide dog”, integrated in AmI, increases her autonomy in the environment.

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Out of the metro station and whilst walking the minutes to her job, Carmen is alerted by her PAN

that a Chardonnay wine that she has previously identified as a preferred choice is on promotion

that day. She decides to add it to her shopping list and uses the opportunity to tell her wearable

when she plans to leave work and where she wants to go. Carmen arrives at her job on time.

On the way home the shared car system senses a bike on a dedicated lane approaching an

intersection on their route. The driver is alerted and the system anyway gives preference to bikes,

so a potential accident is avoided.

AmI opportunities

The system adds security to a blind person walking through the city.

A persistent high pressure for the last ten days has given fine weather but rising atmospheric

pollutants. It is rush hour and the traffic density has caused pollution levels to rise above a control

threshold. The city-wide engine control systems automatically lower the maximum speeds (for all

motorised vehicles) and when the car enters a specific urban ring toll will be deducted via the

Automatic Debiting System (ADS).

Carmen arrives at the local distribution node (actually her neighbourhood corner shop) where she

picks-up her goods. The shop has already closed. But the goods await Carmen in a smart delivery

box. By getting them out, the system registers payment, and deletes the items from her shopping

list. The list is complete. At home, her smart fridge screen will be blank.

Problems

Possible problems in accessing the smart delivery box.

Possible solutions

The distribution point offers tactile accessibility features for the blind. However, Carmen prefers to

interact with the delivery system through her P-com.

Coming home, AmI welcomes Carmen and suggests to telework the next day: a big demonstration

is announced downtown.

4. Annette and Solomon

Original scenario (Annette and Solomon)

It is the plenary meeting of an environmental studies group in a local ‘Environment for Social

Learning’. The group ranges from 10 to 75 years old. They share a common desire to understand

the environment and environmental management. It is led by a mentor whose role it is to guide

and facilitate the group’s operation, but who is not necessarily very knowledgeable about

environmental management. The plenary takes place in a room looking much like a hotel foyer with

comfortable furniture pleasantly arranged. The meeting is open from 7.00-23.00 hours. Most

participants are there for 4-6 hours. A large group arrives around 9.30 a.m. Some are scheduled to

work together in real time and space and thus were requested to be present together (the

environment accesses their agendas to do the scheduling).

A member is arriving: as she enters the room and finds herself a place to work, she hears a familiar

voice asking “Hello Annette, I got the assignment you did last night from home: are you satisfied

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with the results?” Annette answers that she was happy with her strategy for managing forests

provided that she had got the climatic model right: she was less sure of this.

Problems

Navigation in the environment.

Possible solutions

Simplified version of Maria navigation scenario (the room is simpler than the airport).

AmI opportunities

AmI knows the individuals in the learning environment and can adapt itself to their needs.

Annette is an active and advanced student so the environment says it might be useful if Annette

spends some time today trying to pin down the problem with the model using enhanced interactive

simulation and projection facilities. It then asks if Annette would give a brief presentation to the

group. The environment goes briefly through its understanding of Annette’s availability and

references for the day’s work. Finally, Annette agrees on her work programme for the day.

Problems

Problems with interactive simulation and projection facilities.

Possible solutions

Nowadays, interactive simulation systems are inherently based on interaction paradigms using

direct manipulation of objects and on complex (also three-dimensional) visual presentations. In this

future environment the system will have evolved to be multimedia and multimodal. A possible

solution for a blind person could be the evolution toward a virtual reality system based on sound

and tactile interactions (tactile exploration of virtual objects both for input and output of data).

AmI opportunities

The new technology developed for the implementation of the intelligent environment (e.g. tactile

display technology, virtual reality, tactile input technology) is contributing to easier access to

information by blind people.

One particularly long conversation takes place with Solomon who has just moved to the area and

joined the group. The environment establishes Solomon’s identity; asks Solomon for the name of an

ambient that ‘knows’ Solomon; gets permission from Solomon to acquire information about

Solomon’s background and experience in Environmental Studies. The environment then suggests

Solomon to join the meeting and to introduce himself to the group.

In these private conversations the mental states of the group are synchronised with the

environment, individual and collective work plans are agreed and in most cases checked with the

mentor through the environment. In some cases the assistance of the mentor is requested. A

scheduled plenary meeting begins with those who are present. Solomon introduces himself.

Annette gives a 3-D presentation of her assignment. A group member asks questions about one of

Annette’s decisions and alternative visualisations are projected.

322

Appendix I. Scenarios for people

who are not able to see

Problems

Annette needs to know who is in the environment.

Annette needs to know when she can start her presentation.

Annette needs to control the pace of the presentation.

Possible solutions

The P-Coms communicate and exchange the information on who is attending the meeting.

She gets a multi-modal confirmation (voice through earphone plus vibrator) that the presentation

is ready for display.

There is a tactile display in the room. The tactile display has a copy of the presentation plus

additional control functions (active functions), pointing facilities and slide content details.

AmI opportunities

In AmI the wide availability of tactile displays is part of the built in virtual reality interfaces.

During the presentation the mentor is feeding observations and questions to the environment,

together with William, an expert who was asked to join the meeting. William, although several

thousand miles away, joins to make a comment and answer some questions. The session ends with

a discussion of how Annette’s work contributes to that of the others and the proposal of schedules

for the remainder of the day. The environment suggests a schedule involving both shared and

individual sessions.

During the day individuals and sub-groups locate in appropriate spaces in the environment to

pursue appropriate learning experiences at a pace that suits them. The environment negotiates its

degree of participation in these experiences with the aid of the mentor. During the day the mentor

and environment converse frequently, establishing where the mentor might most usefully spend his

time, and in some cases altering the schedule. The environment and the mentor will spend some

time negotiating shared experiences with other environments – for example mounting a single

musical concert with players from two or more distant sites. They will also deal with requests for

references / profiles of individuals. Time spent in the environment ends by negotiating a homework

assignment with each individual, but only after they have been informed about what the

environment expects to happen for the rest of the day and making appointments for next day or

next time.

AmI opportunities

The knowledge of the user profiles and the availability of technologies addressing different

modalities allow the structuring of the space(s) in a way that is suitable for the different users.

323

Appendix II. Glossary of

acronyms used in book

3G:

3rd Generation network

DDA:

Disability Discrimination Act

AAMI:

Age-Associated Memory

D-Me:

Digital Me

Impairment

DTMF:

Dual Tone Multiple Frequencies

ACCS:

Aural Cascading Style Sheet

EDeAN:

European Design for All

ACD:

Automatic Call Distribution

eAccessibility Network

ACIF:

Australian Communications

EDT:

European Deaf Telephone

Industry Forum

EMC:

Electromagnetic Compatibility

ADA:

Americans with Disabilities Act

EIB:

European Installation Bus

AGPS:

Assisted Global Positioning System

ETSI:

European Telecommunications

AmI:

Ambient Intelligence

Standards Institute

ANEC:

European Association for the

EU:

European Union

coordination of Consumer

GDP:

Gross Domestic Product

Requirements in Standardisation

GPRS:

General Packet Radio Service

ASCII:

American Standard for Coding

Information Interchange

GPS:

Global Positioning System

ASL:

American Sign Language

GSM:

Global System for Mobile

Communications

ATAG:

Authoring Tool Accessibility

(originally: Groupe Spécial Mobile)

Guidelines

GUI:

Graphical User Interface

ATM:

Automatic Teller Machine

HAVi:

Home Audio Video Interoperability

AUI:

Aural User Interface

HCO:

Hear Carry Over

BAOC:

Barring of All Outgoing Calls

HF:

Human Factors

CCTV:

Closed Circuit Television

HTML:

Hypertext Markup Language

CD-ROM:

Compact Disk-Read Only Memory

ICF:

International Classification of

CEN:

European Committee of

Disability, Functioning and Health

Standardisation

ICT:

Information and Communications

CENELEC:

European Committee for

Technologies

Electrotechnical Standardisation

IEEE:

Institute of Electrical and

CIF:

Common Intermediate Format

Electronics Engineers

CLI:

Command Line Interface

IEC:

International Electrotechnical

CLI:

Calling-Line Identification

Commission

COCOM:

Communications Committee

IM:

Interactive Management

COST:

European Cooperation in the field

INCOM:

Inclusive Communications

of Scientific and Technical Research

Committee

COST 219:

Future telecommunications and

IM:

Instant Messaging services

teleinformatics facilities for

IR:

Infrared

disabled people and elderly

IP:

Internet Protocol

COST 219bis: Telecommunications: Access for

Disabled and Elderly People

ISDN:

Integrated Services Digital

Network

CSS:

Cascading Style Sheet

ISM:

Interpretive Modelling Structure

DAISY:

Digital Accessible Information

System

ISO:

International Standards

Organisation

324

Appendix II. Glossary of

acronyms used in book

IST:

Information Society Technologies

TCAM:

Telecommunications Conformity

ISTAG:

IST Advisory Group

Assessment and Market

surveillance committee

ITU:

International Telecommunication

Union

TC HF:

Technical Committee Human

Factors (ETSI)

JIS:

Japan Industrial Standard

UAN:

Underground Network Area

LON:

Local Operating Network

UMTS:

Universal Mobile

MCI:

Mild Cognitive Impairment

Telecommunications System

MIDP:

Mobile Information Device Profile

UPnP:

Universal Plug and Play

NFTH:

Nordic Forum for

VoIP:

Voice over Internet Protocol

Telecommunications and Disability

VCO:

Voice Carry Over

NGT:

Nominal Group Technique

W3C:

World Wide Web Consortium

NRA:

National Regulatory Authority

WAI:

Web Accessibility Initiative

NTP:

Network Terminal Point

WAN:

Wide Area Network

OBO:

Operator determined of Barring of

Outgoing calls

WCAG:

Web Contents Accessibility

Guidelines

OCR:

Optical Character Recognition

WER:

Word Error Rate

PATS:

Publicly Available Telephone

Services

WHO:

World Health Organisation

P-Com:

Personal Communicator

WiFi:

Wireless Fidelity (IEEE 802.11b/g)

PDA:

Personal Digital Assistant

WLAN:

Wireless Local Area Network

PDF:

Page Description File

WPAN:

Wireless Personal Area Network

PPCPE:

Pocket PC Phone Edition

WSIS:

World Summit on Information

Society

PSTN:

Public Switched Telephone Network

XML:

Extensible Markup Language

RF:

Radio Frequency

RFID:

Radio Frequency Identification

RTTE:

Radio and Telecommunications

Terminal Equipment

SD:

Secure Digital

SIBS:

Interbank Services Company

SIP:

Session Initiation Protocol

SMP:

Significant Market Power

SMS:

Short Message Service

SOAP:

Simple Object Access Protocol

STF:

Special Task Force

STS:

Standard Telephone Service

SWAMI:

Safeguards in a World of Ambient

Intelligence

SWOT:

Strengths, Weaknesses,

Opportunities, Threats

325

Appendix III. List of authors and

members of COST 219ter

Julio Abascal

Christian Bühler

The University of the Basque Country

Forschungsinstitut Technologie und Behinderung

Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea

Germany

Faculty of Informatics

cb@ftb-volmarstein.de

Spain

Laura Burzagli

julio.abascal@ehu.es

CNR

Santiago Aguilera

Institute of Applied Physics

Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

Italy

Spain

l.burzagli@ifac.cnr.it

aguilera@tfo.upm.es

Patrik Bystedt

Bob Allen

Post- och telestyrelsen, PTS

Central Remedial Clinic,

(National Post and Telecom Agency)

Dublin, Ireland

Sweden

ballen@crc.ie

Patrik.Bystedt@pts.se

Margherita Antona

Edward Chandler

ICS-FORTH

RNIB

Greece

United Kingdom

antona@ics.forth.gr

Edward.Chandler@rnib.org.uk

Myriam Arrue

Anton Civit

The University of the Basque Country

Faculty of Informatics

Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea

University of Sevilla

Faculty of Informatics

Spain

Spain

civit@atc.us.es

myriam@si.ehu.es

António Cordeiro

Gunela Astbrink

Design department of Faculdade de Arquitectura

GSA Information Consultants

(Faculty of Architecture)

Australia

Technical University of Lisbon

g.astbrink@gsa.com.au

Portugal

Ad van Berlo

Sabine Delaitre

Smart Homes Association

EC-IPTS

Netherlands

Spain

a.vberlo@smart-homes.nl

sabine.delaitre@cec.eu.int

Ilse Bierhoff

Elizabeth Dixon

Smart Homes Association

RNIB

Netherlands

United Kingdom

i.bierhoff@smart-homes.nl

Elizabeth.Dixon@rnib.org.uk

Noemi Bitterman

Mike Duxbury

Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning,

Vodafone

Technion Institute of Technology

United Kingdom

Israel

Mike.Duxbury@vf.vodafone.co.uk

noemib@techunix.technion.ac.il

Pier Luigi Emiliani

Kjell Åge Bringsrud

CNR

Department of Informatics

Institute of Applied Physics

University of Oslo

Italy

Norway

p.l.emiliani@ifac.cnr.it

kjellb@ifi.uio.no

326

Appendix III. List of authors and

members of COST 219ter

Jan Engelen

Harry Knops

Catholic University of Leuven

iRV

Dept. of Electrotechnics - ESAT – SCD

Netherlands

Belgium

h.knops@irv.nl

jan.engelen@esat.kuleuven.be

Angeliki Kokkinaki

Cristina Espadinha

Scholl of Business,

Special Education and Rehabilitation Department of

Nicosia, Cyprus

Faculdade de Motricidade Humana - FMH

kokkinaki.a@intercollege.ac.cy

(Faculty of Human Kinetics)

Georgios Kouroupetroglou

Technical University of Lisbon

University of Athens

Portugal

Dept. of Informatics and Telecommunications

Klaus Fellbaum

Greece

Brandenburg University of Technology of Cottbus

koupe@di.uoa.gr

Communication Engineering

Kristian Kristiansson

Germany

Swedish Handicap Institute

Fellbaum @tu-cottbus.de

Sweden

Diamantino Freitas

kristian.kristiansson@hi.se

Dept. of Electrotechnical and Computer

Yiannis Laouris

Engineering

Cyprus Neuroscience & Technology Institute

University of Porto

Cyprus

Portugal

laouris@tech4peace.org

dfreitas@fe.up.pt

Jan-Ingvar Lindström

John Gill

Sweden

RNIB

jan.i.lindstrom@telia.com

United Kingdom

John.Gill@rnib.org.uk

João Brisson Lopes

Computer Science department of Instituto Superior

Chiara Giovannini

Técnico - IST (School of Engineering)

ANEC

Technical University of Lisbon

Belgium

Portugal

c.giovannini@anec.org

Crt Marincek

Gaëll Guibert

Institute for Rehabilitation,

France Telecom Recherche et Developpement

Ljubljana, Slovenia

Laboratoire SVA/HOM

marincek.crt@ir-rs.si

France

gaell.guibert@francetelecom.com

Marios Michaelides

Cyprus Academy of Public Administration

Robert Hecht

Cyprus

Post- och telestyrelsen, PTS

(National Post and Telecom Agency)

Fiona Miller

Sweden

BT Age & Disability Action

Robert.Hecht@pts.se

United Kingdom

fiona.h.miller@bt.com

Erkki Kemppainen

STAKES

Alexandros Mourouzis

Finland

ICS-FORTH

erkki.kemppainen@stakes.fi

Greece

mourouzi@ics.forth.gr

Iosif Klironomos

ICS-FORTH

Jon-Emil Natvig

Greece

Telenor, R&D

iosif@ics.forth.gr

Norway

Jon-emil.natvig@telenor.com

327

Appendix III. List of authors and

members of COST 219ter

Leonor Moniz Pereira

Constantine Stephanidis

Special Education and Rehabilitation Department of

ICS-FORTH

Faculdade de Motricidade Humana - FMH

Greece

(Faculty of Human Kinetics)

cs@ics.forth.gr

Technical University of Lisbon

Jim Tobias

Portugal

Inclusive Technologies

lmpereira@fmh.utl.pt

USA

Ima Placencia

tobias@inclusive.com

European Commission

Steve Tyler

Directorate General Information Society and Media

EDF

eInclusion Unit

RNIB

Belgium

United Kingdom

Inmaculada.placencia-porrero@ec.europa.eu

Steve.Tyler@rnib.org.uk

Bitten Rasch

Gregg Vanderheiden

TDC

TRACE Center

Denmark

University of Wisconsin-Madison

bir@tdc.dk

USA

Manuel Ribeiro

gv@trace.wisc.edu

Design department of Faculdade de Arquitectura

Markel Vigo

(Faculty of Architecture)

The University of the Basque Country

Technical University of Lisbon

Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea

Portugal

Faculty of Informatics

Andreas Richter

Spain

Swedish Handicap Institute

acbvietm@sc.ehu.es

Sweden

Alix Wend

Andreas.Richter@hi.se

Switzerland

Patrick Roe

alix@tele2.ch

LEMA-EPFL

Erland Winterberg

Switzerland

Zealand Care A/S

patrick.roe@epfl.ch

Denmark

Rocio García-Robles

ewi@zealandcare.dk

University of Sevilla

Hajime Yamada

Spain

Toyo University

rocio@atc.us.es

Japan

Anna-Liisa Salminen

yamada_h@toyonet.toyo.ac.jp

STAKES

Nicholas Young

Finland

United Kingdom

anna-liisa.salminen@stakes.fi

nayoung@blueyonder.co.uk

Tony Shipley

Gottfried Zimmermann

Phoneability

TRACE Center

United Kingdom

University of Wisconsin-Madison

adcshipley@aol.com

USA

Mathijs Soede

zimmer@trace.wisc.edu

iRV

Netherlands

msoede@irv.nl

328

Appendix IV.

Further Information

COST

COST is an intergovernmental European framework for international cooperation

between nationally funded research activities. COST creates scientific networks

and enables scientists to collaborate in a wide spectrum of activities in research

and technology. COST activities are administered by the COST Office.

Further information: http://www.cost.esf.org

COST 219ter

The main objective of COST 219ter is to increase the accessibility of next

generation telecommunication network services and equipment to elderly people

and people with disabilities by design or by adaptation when required. In cases

where this cannot be achieved, the Action will promote the establishment of

appropriate supplementary assistive services and equipment. Taking always into

account inclusive design in telecommunications, especially in the mobile field, the

objectives are to:

• Extend the existing COST 219 website for designers to better understand

consumers and their requirements, so that many more people with disabilities

and elderly people can be catered for in mainstream design

• Support the exchange of information on inclusion and accessibility issues so

that these can be freely explored with developers, re s e a rchers and

representatives of the telecommunications industries and service providers

so that

• People with disabilities and elderly people can share in the benefits of new

mobile communication systems.

The signatory countries of the COST 219ter Action are:

Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy,

Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and

the United Kingdom. Australia, Japan and the USA participate as non-COST

members.

Further information: www.cost219.org

329

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